path: root/gcc/rust/parse/rust-parse-impl.h

// Copyright (C) 2020-2024 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

// This file is part of GCC.

// GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
// the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
// Software Foundation; either version 3, or (at your option) any later
// version.

// GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
// WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
// FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
// for more details.

// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
// along with GCC; see the file COPYING3.  If not see
// <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

/* Template implementation for Rust::Parser. Previously in rust-parse.cc (before
 * Parser was template). Separated from rust-parse.h for readability. */

/* DO NOT INCLUDE ANYWHERE - this is automatically included with rust-parse.h
 * This is also the reason why there are no include guards. */

#include "rust-common.h"
#include "rust-expr.h"
#include "rust-item.h"
#include "rust-common.h"
#include "rust-token.h"
#define INCLUDE_ALGORITHM
#include "rust-diagnostics.h"
#include "rust-make-unique.h"
#include "rust-dir-owner.h"
#include "rust-attribute-values.h"
#include "rust-keyword-values.h"
#include "rust-session-manager.h"

#include "optional.h"

namespace Rust {
// Left binding powers of operations.
enum binding_powers
{
  // Highest priority
  LBP_HIGHEST = 100,

  LBP_PATH = 95,

  LBP_METHOD_CALL = 90,

  LBP_FIELD_EXPR = 85,

  LBP_FUNCTION_CALL = 80,
  LBP_ARRAY_REF = LBP_FUNCTION_CALL,

  LBP_QUESTION_MARK = 75, // unary postfix - counts as left

  LBP_UNARY_PLUS = 70,		    // Used only when the null denotation is +
  LBP_UNARY_MINUS = LBP_UNARY_PLUS, // Used only when the null denotation is -
  LBP_UNARY_ASTERISK = LBP_UNARY_PLUS, // deref operator - unary prefix
  LBP_UNARY_EXCLAM = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,
  LBP_UNARY_AMP = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,
  LBP_UNARY_AMP_MUT = LBP_UNARY_PLUS,

  LBP_AS = 65,

  LBP_MUL = 60,
  LBP_DIV = LBP_MUL,
  LBP_MOD = LBP_MUL,

  LBP_PLUS = 55,
  LBP_MINUS = LBP_PLUS,

  LBP_L_SHIFT = 50,
  LBP_R_SHIFT = LBP_L_SHIFT,

  LBP_AMP = 45,

  LBP_CARET = 40,

  LBP_PIPE = 35,

  LBP_EQUAL = 30,
  LBP_NOT_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,
  LBP_SMALLER_THAN = LBP_EQUAL,
  LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,
  LBP_GREATER_THAN = LBP_EQUAL,
  LBP_GREATER_EQUAL = LBP_EQUAL,

  LBP_LOGICAL_AND = 25,

  LBP_LOGICAL_OR = 20,

  LBP_DOT_DOT = 15,
  LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ = LBP_DOT_DOT,

  // TODO: note all these assig operators are RIGHT associative!
  LBP_ASSIG = 10,
  LBP_PLUS_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_MINUS_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_MULT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_DIV_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_MOD_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_AMP_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_PIPE_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_CARET_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_L_SHIFT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,
  LBP_R_SHIFT_ASSIG = LBP_ASSIG,

  // return, break, and closures as lowest priority?
  LBP_RETURN = 5,
  LBP_BREAK = LBP_RETURN,
  LBP_CLOSURE = LBP_RETURN, // unary prefix operators

#if 0
  // rust precedences
  // used for closures
  PREC_CLOSURE = -40,
  // used for break, continue, return, and yield
  PREC_JUMP = -30,
  // used for range (although weird comment in rustc about this)
  PREC_RANGE = -10,
  // used for binary operators mentioned below - also cast, colon (type),
  // assign, assign_op
  PREC_BINOP = FROM_ASSOC_OP,
  // used for box, address_of, let, unary (again, weird comment on let)
  PREC_PREFIX = 50,
  // used for await, call, method call, field, index, try,
  // inline asm, macro invocation
  PREC_POSTFIX = 60,
  // used for array, repeat, tuple, literal, path, paren, if,
  // while, for, 'loop', match, block, try block, async, struct
  PREC_PAREN = 99,
  PREC_FORCE_PAREN = 100,
#endif

  // lowest priority
  LBP_LOWEST = 0
};

/* Returns whether the token can start a type (i.e. there is a valid type
 * beginning with the token). */
inline bool
can_tok_start_type (TokenId id)
{
  switch (id)
    {
    case EXCLAM:
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
    case LEFT_ANGLE:
    case UNDERSCORE:
    case ASTERISK:
    case AMP:
    case LIFETIME:
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case FOR:
    case ASYNC:
    case CONST:
    case UNSAFE:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case FN_KW:
    case IMPL:
    case DYN:
    case QUESTION_MARK:
      return true;
    default:
      return false;
    }
}

/* Returns whether the token id is (or is likely to be) a right angle bracket.
 * i.e. '>', '>>', '>=' and '>>=' tokens. */
inline bool
is_right_angle_tok (TokenId id)
{
  switch (id)
    {
    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
    case RIGHT_SHIFT:
    case GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
    case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ:
      return true;
    default:
      return false;
    }
}

/* HACK-y special handling for skipping a right angle token at the end of
 * generic arguments.
 * Currently, this replaces the "current token" with one that is identical
 * except has the leading '>' removed (e.g. '>>' becomes '>'). This is bad
 * for several reasons - it modifies the token stream to something that
 * actually doesn't make syntactic sense, it may not worked if the token
 * has already been skipped, etc. It was done because it would not
 * actually require inserting new items into the token stream (which I
 * thought would take more work to not mess up) and because I wasn't sure
 * if the "already seen right angle" flag in the parser would work
 * correctly.
 * Those two other approaches listed are in my opinion actually better
 * long-term - insertion is probably best as it reflects syntactically
 * what occurs. On the other hand, I need to do a code audit to make sure
 * that insertion doesn't mess anything up. So that's a FIXME. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_generics_right_angle ()
{
  /* OK, new great idea. Have a lexer method called
   * "split_current_token(TokenType newLeft, TokenType newRight)", which is
   * called here with whatever arguments are appropriate. That lexer method
   * handles "replacing" the current token with the "newLeft" and "inserting"
   * the next token with the "newRight" (and creating a location, etc. for it)
   */

  /* HACK: special handling for right shift '>>', greater or equal '>=', and
   * right shift assig */
  // '>>='
  const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
      // this is good - skip token
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return true;
      case RIGHT_SHIFT: {
	// new implementation that should be better
	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, RIGHT_ANGLE);
	lexer.skip_token ();
	return true;
      }
      case GREATER_OR_EQUAL: {
	// new implementation that should be better
	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, EQUAL);
	lexer.skip_token ();
	return true;
      }
      case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ: {
	// new implementation that should be better
	lexer.split_current_token (RIGHT_ANGLE, GREATER_OR_EQUAL);
	lexer.skip_token ();
	return true;
      }
    default:
      add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
			"expected %<>%> at end of generic argument - found %qs",
			tok->get_token_description ()));
      return false;
    }
}

/* Gets left binding power for specified token.
 * Not suitable for use at the moment or possibly ever because binding power
 * cannot be purely determined from operator token with Rust grammar - e.g.
 * method call and field access have
 * different left binding powers but the same operator token. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
int
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::left_binding_power (const_TokenPtr token)
{
  // HACK: called with "peek_token()", so lookahead is "peek_token(1)"
  switch (token->get_id ())
    {
      /* TODO: issue here - distinguish between method calls and field access
       * somehow? Also would have to distinguish between paths and function
       * calls (:: operator), maybe more stuff. */
      /* Current plan for tackling LBP - don't do it based on token, use
       * lookahead. Or alternatively, only use Pratt parsing for OperatorExpr
       * and handle other expressions without it. rustc only considers
       * arithmetic, logical/relational, 'as',
       * '?=', ranges, colons, and assignment to have operator precedence and
       * associativity rules applicable. It then has
       * a separate "ExprPrecedence" that also includes binary operators. */

      // TODO: handle operator overloading - have a function replace the
      // operator?

      /*case DOT:
	  return LBP_DOT;*/

    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      rust_debug (
	"possible error - looked up LBP of scope resolution operator. should "
	"be handled elsewhere.");
      return LBP_PATH;

    /* Resolved by lookahead HACK that should work with current code. If next
     * token is identifier and token after that isn't parenthesised expression
     * list, it is a field reference. */
    case DOT:
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
	  && lexer.peek_token (2)->get_id () != LEFT_PAREN)
	{
	  return LBP_FIELD_EXPR;
	}
      return LBP_METHOD_CALL;

    case LEFT_PAREN:
      return LBP_FUNCTION_CALL;

    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      return LBP_ARRAY_REF;

    // postfix question mark (i.e. error propagation expression)
    case QUESTION_MARK:
      return LBP_QUESTION_MARK;

    case AS:
      return LBP_AS;

    case ASTERISK:
      return LBP_MUL;
    case DIV:
      return LBP_DIV;
    case PERCENT:
      return LBP_MOD;

    case PLUS:
      return LBP_PLUS;
    case MINUS:
      return LBP_MINUS;

    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_L_SHIFT;
    case RIGHT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_R_SHIFT;

    // binary & operator
    case AMP:
      return LBP_AMP;

    // binary ^ operator
    case CARET:
      return LBP_CARET;

    // binary | operator
    case PIPE:
      return LBP_PIPE;

    case EQUAL_EQUAL:
      return LBP_EQUAL;
    case NOT_EQUAL:
      return LBP_NOT_EQUAL;
    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
      return LBP_GREATER_THAN;
    case GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
      return LBP_GREATER_EQUAL;
    case LEFT_ANGLE:
      return LBP_SMALLER_THAN;
    case LESS_OR_EQUAL:
      return LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL;

    case LOGICAL_AND:
      return LBP_LOGICAL_AND;

    case OR:
      return LBP_LOGICAL_OR;

    case DOT_DOT:
      return LBP_DOT_DOT;

    case DOT_DOT_EQ:
      return LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ;

    case EQUAL:
      return LBP_ASSIG;
    case PLUS_EQ:
      return LBP_PLUS_ASSIG;
    case MINUS_EQ:
      return LBP_MINUS_ASSIG;
    case ASTERISK_EQ:
      return LBP_MULT_ASSIG;
    case DIV_EQ:
      return LBP_DIV_ASSIG;
    case PERCENT_EQ:
      return LBP_MOD_ASSIG;
    case AMP_EQ:
      return LBP_AMP_ASSIG;
    case PIPE_EQ:
      return LBP_PIPE_ASSIG;
    case CARET_EQ:
      return LBP_CARET_ASSIG;
    case LEFT_SHIFT_EQ:
      return LBP_L_SHIFT_ASSIG;
    case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ:
      return LBP_R_SHIFT_ASSIG;

    /* HACK: float literal due to lexer misidentifying a dot then an integer as
     * a float */
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      return LBP_FIELD_EXPR;
      // field expr is same as tuple expr in precedence, i imagine
      // TODO: is this needed anymore? lexer shouldn't do that anymore

    // anything that can't appear in an infix position is given lowest priority
    default:
      return LBP_LOWEST;
    }
}

// Returns true when current token is EOF.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::done_end_of_file ()
{
  return lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == END_OF_FILE;
}

// Parses a sequence of items within a module or the implicit top-level module
// in a crate
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_items ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> item = parse_item (false);
      if (item == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse item in crate");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // TODO: should all items be cleared?
	  items = std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> ();
	  break;
	}

      items.push_back (std::move (item));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  return items;
}

// Parses a crate (compilation unit) - entry point
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Crate>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_crate ()
{
  // parse inner attributes
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse items
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items = parse_items ();

  // emit all errors
  for (const auto &error : error_table)
    error.emit ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Crate> (
    new AST::Crate (std::move (items), std::move (inner_attrs)));
}

// Parse a contiguous block of inner attributes.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::AttrVec
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inner_attributes ()
{
  AST::AttrVec inner_attributes;

  // only try to parse it if it starts with "#!" not only "#"
  while ((lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == HASH
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
    {
      AST::Attribute inner_attr = parse_inner_attribute ();

      /* Ensure only valid inner attributes are added to the inner_attributes
       * list */
      if (!inner_attr.is_empty ())
	{
	  inner_attributes.push_back (std::move (inner_attr));
	}
      else
	{
	  /* If no more valid inner attributes, break out of loop (only
	   * contiguous inner attributes parsed). */
	  break;
	}
    }

  inner_attributes.shrink_to_fit ();
  return inner_attributes;
}

// Parse a inner or outer doc comment into an doc attribute
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::tuple<AST::SimplePath, std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput>, location_t>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_doc_comment ()
{
  const_TokenPtr token = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t locus = token->get_locus ();
  AST::SimplePathSegment segment (Values::Attributes::DOC, locus);
  std::vector<AST::SimplePathSegment> segments;
  segments.push_back (std::move (segment));
  AST::SimplePath attr_path (std::move (segments), false, locus);
  AST::LiteralExpr lit_expr (token->get_str (), AST::Literal::STRING,
			     PrimitiveCoreType::CORETYPE_STR, {}, locus);
  std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input (
    new AST::AttrInputLiteral (std::move (lit_expr)));
  lexer.skip_token ();
  return std::make_tuple (std::move (attr_path), std::move (attr_input), locus);
}

// Parse a single inner attribute.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::Attribute
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inner_attribute ()
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
    {
      auto values = parse_doc_comment ();
      auto path = std::move (std::get<0> (values));
      auto input = std::move (std::get<1> (values));
      auto loc = std::get<2> (values);
      return AST::Attribute (std::move (path), std::move (input), loc, true);
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != HASH)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "BUG: token %<#%> is missing, but %<parse_inner_attribute%> "
		   "was invoked");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != EXCLAM)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "expected %<!%> or %<[%> for inner attribute");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_SQUARE))
    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();

  auto values = parse_attribute_body ();

  auto path = std::move (std::get<0> (values));
  auto input = std::move (std::get<1> (values));
  auto loc = std::get<2> (values);
  auto actual_attribute
    = AST::Attribute (std::move (path), std::move (input), loc, true);

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE))
    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();

  return actual_attribute;
}

// Parses the body of an attribute (inner or outer).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::tuple<AST::SimplePath, std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput>, location_t>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_attribute_body ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  AST::SimplePath attr_path = parse_simple_path ();
  // ensure path is valid to parse attribute input
  if (attr_path.is_empty ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "empty simple path in attribute");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // Skip past potential further info in attribute (i.e. attr_input)
      skip_after_end_attribute ();
      return std::make_tuple (std::move (attr_path), nullptr, UNDEF_LOCATION);
    }

  std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input = parse_attr_input ();
  // AttrInput is allowed to be null, so no checks here

  return std::make_tuple (std::move (attr_path), std::move (attr_input), locus);
}

/* Determines whether token is a valid simple path segment. This does not
 * include scope resolution operators. */
inline bool
is_simple_path_segment (TokenId id)
{
  switch (id)
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case CRATE:
      return true;
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      // assume that dollar sign leads to $crate
      return true;
    default:
      return false;
    }
}

// Parses a SimplePath AST node, if it exists. Does nothing otherwise.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::SimplePath
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_simple_path ()
{
  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
  location_t locus = UNKNOWN_LOCATION;

  // don't parse anything if not a path upfront
  if (!is_simple_path_segment (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
      && !is_simple_path_segment (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id ()))
    return AST::SimplePath::create_empty ();

  /* Checks for opening scope resolution (i.e. global scope fully-qualified
   * path) */
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;

      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // Parse single required simple path segment
  AST::SimplePathSegment segment = parse_simple_path_segment ();

  // get location if not gotten already
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    locus = segment.get_locus ();

  std::vector<AST::SimplePathSegment> segments;

  // Return empty vector if first, actually required segment is an error
  if (segment.is_error ())
    return AST::SimplePath::create_empty ();

  segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

  // Parse all other simple path segments
  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // Skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      AST::SimplePathSegment new_segment = parse_simple_path_segment ();

      // Return path as currently constructed if segment in error state.
      if (new_segment.is_error ())
	break;

      segments.push_back (std::move (new_segment));
    }

  // DEBUG: check for any empty segments
  for (const auto &seg : segments)
    {
      if (seg.is_error ())
	{
	  rust_debug (
	    "when parsing simple path, somehow empty path segment was "
	    "not filtered out. Path begins with '%s'",
	    segments.at (0).as_string ().c_str ());
	}
    }

  return AST::SimplePath (std::move (segments), has_opening_scope_resolution,
			  locus);
  /* TODO: now that is_simple_path_segment exists, could probably start
   * actually making errors upon parse failure of segments and whatever */
}

/* Parses a single SimplePathSegment (does not handle the scope resolution
 * operators) */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::SimplePathSegment
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_simple_path_segment ()
{
  using namespace Values;
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::SimplePathSegment (t->get_str (), t->get_locus ());
    case SUPER:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::SimplePathSegment (Keywords::SUPER, t->get_locus ());
    case SELF:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::SimplePathSegment (Keywords::SELF, t->get_locus ());
    case CRATE:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::SimplePathSegment (Keywords::CRATE, t->get_locus ());
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == CRATE)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token (1);

	  return AST::SimplePathSegment ("$crate", t->get_locus ());
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    default:
      // do nothing but inactivates warning from gcc when compiling
      /* could put the rust_error_at thing here but fallthrough (from failing
       * $crate condition) isn't completely obvious if it is. */

      // test prevent error
      return AST::SimplePathSegment::create_error ();
    }
  rust_unreachable ();
  /*rust_error_at(
    t->get_locus(), "invalid token '%s' in simple path segment",
    t->get_token_description());*/
  // this is not necessarily an error, e.g. end of path
  // return AST::SimplePathSegment::create_error();
}

// Parses a PathIdentSegment - an identifier segment of a non-SimplePath path.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::PathIdentSegment
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_ident_segment ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::PathIdentSegment (t->get_str (), t->get_locus ());
    case SUPER:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::PathIdentSegment (Values::Keywords::SUPER, t->get_locus ());
    case SELF:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::PathIdentSegment (Values::Keywords::SELF, t->get_locus ());
    case SELF_ALIAS:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::PathIdentSegment (Values::Keywords::SELF_ALIAS,
				    t->get_locus ());
    case CRATE:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::PathIdentSegment (Values::Keywords::CRATE, t->get_locus ());
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == CRATE)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token (1);

	  return AST::PathIdentSegment ("$crate", t->get_locus ());
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    default:
      /* do nothing but inactivates warning from gcc when compiling
       * could put the error_at thing here but fallthrough (from failing $crate
       * condition) isn't completely obvious if it is. */

      // test prevent error
      return AST::PathIdentSegment::create_error ();
    }
  rust_unreachable ();
  // not necessarily an error
}

// Parses an AttrInput AST node (polymorphic, as AttrInput is abstract)
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_attr_input ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	// must be a delimited token tree, so parse that
	std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> input_tree (
	  new AST::DelimTokenTree (parse_delim_token_tree ()));

	// TODO: potential checks on DelimTokenTree before returning

	return input_tree;
      }
      case EQUAL: {
	// = LiteralExpr
	lexer.skip_token ();

	t = lexer.peek_token ();

	// attempt to parse macro
	// TODO: macros may/may not be allowed in attributes
	// this is needed for "#[doc = include_str!(...)]"
	if (is_simple_path_segment (t->get_id ()))
	  {
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> invoke
	      = parse_macro_invocation ({});

	    if (!invoke)
	      return nullptr;

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> (
	      new AST::AttrInputMacro (std::move (invoke)));
	  }

	/* Ensure token is a "literal expression" (literally only a literal
	 * token of any type) */
	if (!t->is_literal ())
	  {
	    Error error (
	      t->get_locus (),
	      "unknown token %qs in attribute body - literal expected",
	      t->get_token_description ());
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    skip_after_end_attribute ();
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	AST::Literal::LitType lit_type = AST::Literal::STRING;
	// Crappy mapping of token type to literal type
	switch (t->get_id ())
	  {
	  case INT_LITERAL:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::INT;
	    break;
	  case FLOAT_LITERAL:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::FLOAT;
	    break;
	  case CHAR_LITERAL:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::CHAR;
	    break;
	  case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::BYTE;
	    break;
	  case BYTE_STRING_LITERAL:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::BYTE_STRING;
	    break;
	  case STRING_LITERAL:
	  default:
	    lit_type = AST::Literal::STRING;
	    break; // TODO: raw string? don't eliminate it from lexer?
	  }

	// create actual LiteralExpr
	AST::LiteralExpr lit_expr (t->get_str (), lit_type, t->get_type_hint (),
				   {}, t->get_locus ());
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::unique_ptr<AST::AttrInput> attr_input_lit (
	  new AST::AttrInputLiteral (std::move (lit_expr)));

	// do checks or whatever? none required, really

	// FIXME: shouldn't a skip token be required here?

	return attr_input_lit;
      }
      break;
    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
      // means AttrInput is missing, which is allowed
      return nullptr;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unknown token %qs in attribute body - attribute input or "
	       "none expected",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      skip_after_end_attribute ();
      return nullptr;
    }
  rust_unreachable ();
  // TODO: find out how to stop gcc error on "no return value"
}

/* Returns true if the token id matches the delimiter type. Note that this only
 * operates for END delimiter tokens. */
inline bool
token_id_matches_delims (TokenId token_id, AST::DelimType delim_type)
{
  return ((token_id == RIGHT_PAREN && delim_type == AST::PARENS)
	  || (token_id == RIGHT_SQUARE && delim_type == AST::SQUARE)
	  || (token_id == RIGHT_CURLY && delim_type == AST::CURLY));
}

/* Returns true if the likely result of parsing the next few tokens is a path.
 * Not guaranteed, though, especially in the case of syntax errors. */
inline bool
is_likely_path_next (TokenId next_token_id)
{
  switch (next_token_id)
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    // maybe - maybe do extra check. But then requires another TokenId.
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      return true;
    default:
      return false;
    }
}

// Parses a delimited token tree
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::DelimTokenTree
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_delim_token_tree ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  lexer.skip_token ();
  location_t initial_loc = t->get_locus ();

  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;

  // Map tokens to DelimType
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
      break;
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
      break;
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
			"delimited token tree)",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
    }

  // parse actual token tree vector - 0 or more
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>> token_trees_in_tree;
  auto delim_open
    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
  token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (delim_open));

  // repeat loop until finding the matching delimiter
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type)
	 && t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree> tok_tree = parse_token_tree ();

      if (tok_tree == nullptr)
	{
	  // TODO: is this error handling appropriate?
	  Error error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse token tree in delimited token tree - found %qs",
	    t->get_token_description ());
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
	}

      token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (tok_tree));

      // lexer.skip_token();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }
  auto delim_close
    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
  token_trees_in_tree.push_back (std::move (delim_close));

  AST::DelimTokenTree token_tree (delim_type, std::move (token_trees_in_tree),
				  initial_loc);

  // parse end delimiters
  t = lexer.peek_token ();

  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("finished parsing new delim token tree - peeked token is now "
		  "'%s' while t is '%s'",
		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description (),
		  t->get_token_description ());

      return token_tree;
    }
  else
    {
      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
		   "(for a delimited token tree)",
		   t->get_token_description (),
		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
		      ? ")"
		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
      add_error (std::move (error));

      /* return empty token tree despite possibly parsing valid token tree -
       * TODO is this a good idea? */
      return AST::DelimTokenTree::create_empty ();
    }
}

// Parses an identifier/keyword as a Token
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Token>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_identifier_or_keyword_token ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER || token_id_is_keyword (t->get_id ()))
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
    }
  else
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Parses a TokenTree syntactical production. This is either a delimited token
 * tree or a non-delimiter token. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_token_tree ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      // Parse delimited token tree
      // TODO: use move rather than copy constructor
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::DelimTokenTree> (
	new AST::DelimTokenTree (parse_delim_token_tree ()));
    case RIGHT_PAREN:
    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
    case RIGHT_CURLY:
      // error - should not be called when this a token
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unexpected closing delimiter %qs - token tree requires "
	       "either paired delimiters or non-delimiter tokens",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      lexer.skip_token ();
      return nullptr;
    default:
      // parse token itself as TokenTree
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
    }
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::is_macro_rules_def (const_TokenPtr t)
{
  auto macro_name = lexer.peek_token (2)->get_id ();

  bool allowed_macro_name = (macro_name == IDENTIFIER || macro_name == TRY);

  return t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::MACRO_RULES
	 && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM && allowed_macro_name;
}

// Parses a single item
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_item (bool called_from_statement)
{
  // has a "called_from_statement" parameter for better error message handling

  // parse outer attributes for item
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case END_OF_FILE:
      // not necessarily an error, unless we just read outer
      // attributes which needs to be attached
      if (!outer_attrs.empty ())
	{
	  Rust::AST::Attribute attr = outer_attrs.back ();
	  Error error (attr.get_locus (),
		       "expected item after outer attribute or doc comment");
	  add_error (std::move (error));
	}
      return nullptr;

    case ASYNC:
    case PUB:
    case MOD:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case USE:
    case FN_KW:
    case TYPE:
    case STRUCT_KW:
    case ENUM_KW:
    case CONST:
    case STATIC_KW:
    case AUTO:
    case TRAIT:
    case IMPL:
    case MACRO:
    /* TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
     * context-dependence crappy hack way to parse a union written below to
     * separate it from the good code. */
    // case UNION:
    case UNSAFE: // maybe - unsafe traits are a thing
      // if any of these (should be all possible VisItem prefixes), parse a
      // VisItem
      return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
      break;
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      // almost certainly macro invocation semi
      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
      break;
    // crappy hack to do union "keyword"
    case IDENTIFIER:
      // TODO: ensure std::string and literal comparison works
      if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::UNION
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
	{
	  return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
	  // or should this go straight to parsing union?
	}
      else if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::DEFAULT
	       && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () != EXCLAM)
	{
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "%qs is only allowed on items within %qs blocks",
			    "default", "impl"));
	  return nullptr;
	}
      else if (is_macro_rules_def (t))
	{
	  // macro_rules! macro item
	  return parse_macro_rules_def (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      else if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
	       || lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	{
	  /* path (probably) or macro invocation, so probably a macro invocation
	   * semi */
	  return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    default:
      // otherwise unrecognised
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs for start of %s",
			t->get_token_description (),
			called_from_statement ? "statement" : "item"));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
      break;
    }
}

// Parses a contiguous block of outer attributes.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::AttrVec
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_outer_attributes ()
{
  AST::AttrVec outer_attributes;

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()
	   == HASH /* Can also be #!, which catches errors.  */
	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OUTER_DOC_COMMENT
	 || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()
	      == INNER_DOC_COMMENT) /* For error handling.  */
    {
      AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();

      /* Ensure only valid outer attributes are added to the outer_attributes
       * list */
      if (!outer_attr.is_empty ())
	{
	  outer_attributes.push_back (std::move (outer_attr));
	}
      else
	{
	  /* If no more valid outer attributes, break out of loop (only
	   * contiguous outer attributes parsed). */
	  break;
	}
    }

  outer_attributes.shrink_to_fit ();
  return outer_attributes;

  /* TODO: this shares basically all code with parse_inner_attributes except
   * function call - find way of making it more modular? function pointer? */
}

// Parse a single outer attribute.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::Attribute
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_outer_attribute ()
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OUTER_DOC_COMMENT)
    {
      auto values = parse_doc_comment ();
      auto path = std::move (std::get<0> (values));
      auto input = std::move (std::get<1> (values));
      auto loc = std::get<2> (values);
      return AST::Attribute (std::move (path), std::move (input), loc, false);
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == INNER_DOC_COMMENT)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (), ErrorCode::E0753,
	"expected outer doc comment, inner doc (%<//!%> or %</*!%>) only "
	"allowed at start of item "
	"and before any outer attribute or doc (%<#[%>, %<///%> or %</**%>)");
      add_error (std::move (error));
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
    }

  /* OuterAttribute -> '#' '[' Attr ']' */

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != HASH)
    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();

  lexer.skip_token ();

  TokenId id = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ();
  if (id != LEFT_SQUARE)
    {
      if (id == EXCLAM)
	{
	  // this is inner attribute syntax, so throw error
	  // inner attributes were either already parsed or not allowed here.
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "token %<!%> found, indicating inner attribute definition. Inner "
	    "attributes are not possible at this location");
	  add_error (std::move (error));
	}
      return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();
    }

  lexer.skip_token ();

  auto values = parse_attribute_body ();
  auto path = std::move (std::get<0> (values));
  auto input = std::move (std::get<1> (values));
  auto loc = std::get<2> (values);
  auto actual_attribute
    = AST::Attribute (std::move (path), std::move (input), loc, false);

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_SQUARE)
    return AST::Attribute::create_empty ();

  lexer.skip_token ();

  return actual_attribute;
}

// Parses a VisItem (item that can have non-default visibility).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_vis_item (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // parse visibility, which may or may not exist
  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  // select VisItem to create depending on keyword
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case MOD:
      return parse_module (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case EXTERN_KW:
      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
      t = lexer.peek_token (1);

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case CRATE:
	  return parse_extern_crate (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case FN_KW: // extern function
	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case LEFT_CURLY: // extern block
	  return parse_extern_block (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case STRING_LITERAL: // for specifying extern ABI
	  // could be extern block or extern function, so more lookahead
	  t = lexer.peek_token (2);

	  switch (t->get_id ())
	    {
	    case FN_KW:
	      return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	    case LEFT_CURLY:
	      return parse_extern_block (std::move (vis),
					 std::move (outer_attrs));
	    default:
	      add_error (
		Error (t->get_locus (),
		       "unexpected token %qs in some sort of extern production",
		       t->get_token_description ()));

	      lexer.skip_token (2); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	      return nullptr;
	    }
	default:
	  add_error (
	    Error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of extern production",
		   t->get_token_description ()));

	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    case USE:
      return parse_use_decl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case FN_KW:
      return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case TYPE:
      return parse_type_alias (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case STRUCT_KW:
      return parse_struct (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case ENUM_KW:
      return parse_enum (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    // TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
    // context-dependence case UNION: crappy hack to do union "keyword"
    case IDENTIFIER:
      if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::UNION
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
	{
	  return parse_union (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	  // or should item switch go straight to parsing union?
	}
      else
	{
	  break;
	}
    case CONST:
      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
      t = lexer.peek_token (1);

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case IDENTIFIER:
	case UNDERSCORE:
	  return parse_const_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case UNSAFE:
	case EXTERN_KW:
	case ASYNC:
	  return parse_async_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case FN_KW:
	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	default:
	  add_error (
	    Error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const production",
		   t->get_token_description ()));

	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    // for async functions
    case ASYNC:
      return parse_async_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));

    case STATIC_KW:
      return parse_static_item (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case AUTO:
    case TRAIT:
      return parse_trait (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case IMPL:
      return parse_impl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case UNSAFE: // unsafe traits, unsafe functions, unsafe impls (trait impls),
      // lookahead to resolve syntactical production
      t = lexer.peek_token (1);

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case AUTO:
	case TRAIT:
	  return parse_trait (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case EXTERN_KW:
	case FN_KW:
	  return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case IMPL:
	  return parse_impl (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	case MOD:
	  return parse_module (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
	default:
	  add_error (
	    Error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs in some sort of unsafe production",
		   t->get_token_description ()));

	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    case MACRO:
      return parse_decl_macro_def (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));
    default:
      // otherwise vis item clearly doesn't exist, which is not an error
      // has a catch-all post-switch return to allow other breaks to occur
      break;
    }
  return nullptr;
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Function>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_async_item (AST::Visibility vis,
					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  auto offset = (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == CONST) ? 1 : 0;
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token (offset);

  if (Session::get_instance ().options.get_edition ()
      == CompileOptions::Edition::E2015)
    {
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (), ErrorCode::E0670,
			"%<async fn%> is not permitted in Rust 2015"));
      add_error (
	Error::Hint (t->get_locus (),
		     "to use %<async fn%>, switch to Rust 2018 or later"));
    }

  t = lexer.peek_token (offset + 1);

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case UNSAFE:
    case FN_KW:
      return parse_function (std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs));

    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (), "expected item, found keyword %<async%>"));

      lexer.skip_token (1);
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a macro rules definition syntax extension whatever thing.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_rules_def (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // ensure that first token is identifier saying "macro_rules"
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () != IDENTIFIER
      || t->get_str () != Values::WeakKeywords::MACRO_RULES)
    {
      Error error (
	t->get_locus (),
	"macro rules definition does not start with %<macro_rules%>");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();
  location_t macro_locus = t->get_locus ();

  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse macro name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier rule_name{ident_tok};

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("in macro rules def, about to parse parens.");

  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;

  // Map tokens to DelimType
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
      break;
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
      break;
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
			"macro rules definition)",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse actual macro rules
  std::vector<AST::MacroRule> macro_rules;

  // must be at least one macro rule, so parse it
  AST::MacroRule initial_rule = parse_macro_rule ();
  if (initial_rule.is_error ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "required first macro rule in macro rules definition "
		   "could not be parsed");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  macro_rules.push_back (std::move (initial_rule));

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("successfully pushed back initial macro rule");

  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  // parse macro rules
  while (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      // skip semicolon
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // don't parse if end of macro rules
      if (token_id_matches_delims (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id (), delim_type))
	{
	  // DEBUG
	  rust_debug (
	    "broke out of parsing macro rules loop due to finding delim");

	  break;
	}

      // try to parse next rule
      AST::MacroRule rule = parse_macro_rule ();
      if (rule.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse macro rule in macro rules definition");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      macro_rules.push_back (std::move (rule));

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully pushed back another macro rule");

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // parse end delimiters
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (delim_type != AST::CURLY)
	{
	  // skip semicolon at end of non-curly macro definitions
	  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	    {
	      // as this is the end, allow recovery (probably) - may change
	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
		AST::MacroRulesDefinition::mbe (
		  std::move (rule_name), delim_type, std::move (macro_rules),
		  std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus));
	    }
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
	AST::MacroRulesDefinition::mbe (std::move (rule_name), delim_type,
					std::move (macro_rules),
					std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus));
    }
  else
    {
      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
		   "(for a macro rules definition)",
		   t->get_token_description (),
		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
		      ? ")"
		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
      add_error (std::move (error));

      /* return empty macro definiton despite possibly parsing mostly valid one
       * - TODO is this a good idea? */
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a declarative macro 2.0 definition.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_decl_macro_def (AST::Visibility vis,
						  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // ensure that first token is identifier saying "macro"
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () != MACRO)
    {
      Error error (
	t->get_locus (),
	"declarative macro definition does not start with %<macro%>");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();
  location_t macro_locus = t->get_locus ();

  // parse macro name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier rule_name{ident_tok};

  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN)
    {
      // single definiton of macro rule
      // e.g. `macro foo($e:expr) {}`

      // parse macro matcher
      location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      AST::MacroMatcher matcher = parse_macro_matcher ();
      if (matcher.is_error ())
	return nullptr;

      // check delimiter of macro matcher
      if (matcher.get_delim_type () != AST::DelimType::PARENS)
	{
	  Error error (locus, "only parenthesis can be used for a macro "
			      "matcher in declarative macro definition");
	  add_error (std::move (error));
	  return nullptr;
	}

      location_t transcriber_loc = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      AST::DelimTokenTree delim_tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();
      AST::MacroTranscriber transcriber (delim_tok_tree, transcriber_loc);

      if (transcriber.get_token_tree ().get_delim_type ()
	  != AST::DelimType::CURLY)
	{
	  Error error (transcriber_loc,
		       "only braces can be used for a macro transcriber "
		       "in declarative macro definition");
	  add_error (std::move (error));
	  return nullptr;
	}

      AST::MacroRule macro_rule
	= AST::MacroRule (std::move (matcher), std::move (transcriber), locus);
      std::vector<AST::MacroRule> macro_rules;
      macro_rules.push_back (macro_rule);

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
	AST::MacroRulesDefinition::decl_macro (std::move (rule_name),
					       macro_rules,
					       std::move (outer_attrs),
					       macro_locus, vis));
    }
  else if (t->get_id () == LEFT_CURLY)
    {
      // multiple definitions of macro rule separated by comma
      // e.g. `macro foo { () => {}, ($e:expr) => {}, }`

      // parse left curly
      const_TokenPtr left_curly = expect_token (LEFT_CURLY);
      if (left_curly == nullptr)
	{
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse actual macro rules
      std::vector<AST::MacroRule> macro_rules;

      // must be at least one macro rule, so parse it
      AST::MacroRule initial_rule = parse_macro_rule ();
      if (initial_rule.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "required first macro rule in declarative macro definition "
	    "could not be parsed");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip after somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}
      macro_rules.push_back (std::move (initial_rule));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
      // parse macro rules
      while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  // skip comma
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  // don't parse if end of macro rules
	  if (token_id_matches_delims (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id (),
				       AST::CURLY))
	    {
	      break;
	    }

	  // try to parse next rule
	  AST::MacroRule rule = parse_macro_rule ();
	  if (rule.is_error ())
	    {
	      Error error (
		lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		"failed to parse macro rule in declarative macro definition");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  macro_rules.push_back (std::move (rule));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}

      // parse right curly
      const_TokenPtr right_curly = expect_token (RIGHT_CURLY);
      if (right_curly == nullptr)
	{
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroRulesDefinition> (
	AST::MacroRulesDefinition::decl_macro (std::move (rule_name),
					       std::move (macro_rules),
					       std::move (outer_attrs),
					       macro_locus, vis));
    }
  else
    {
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters "
			"(for a declarative macro definiton)",
			t->get_token_description ()));
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a semi-coloned (except for full block) macro invocation item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_invocation_semi (
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t macro_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();

  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;

  // Map tokens to DelimType
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
      break;
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
      break;
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a "
			"macro invocation semi body)",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
  location_t tok_tree_locus = t->get_locus ();
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse actual token trees
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree>> token_trees;
  auto delim_open
    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
  token_trees.push_back (std::move (delim_open));

  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  // parse token trees until the initial delimiter token is found again
  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TokenTree> tree = parse_token_tree ();

      if (tree == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse token tree for macro invocation semi "
		       "- found %qs",
		       t->get_token_description ());
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      token_trees.push_back (std::move (tree));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }
  auto delim_close
    = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
  token_trees.push_back (std::move (delim_close));

  AST::DelimTokenTree delim_tok_tree (delim_type, std::move (token_trees),
				      tok_tree_locus);
  AST::MacroInvocData invoc_data (std::move (path), std::move (delim_tok_tree));

  // parse end delimiters
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (delim_type != AST::CURLY)
	{
	  // skip semicolon at end of non-curly macro invocation semis
	  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	    {
	      // as this is the end, allow recovery (probably) - may change

	      return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (std::move (invoc_data),
						    std::move (outer_attrs),
						    macro_locus, true);
	    }
	}

      // DEBUG:
      rust_debug ("skipped token is '%s', next token (current peek) is '%s'",
		  t->get_token_description (),
		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description ());

      return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (std::move (invoc_data),
					    std::move (outer_attrs),
					    macro_locus, true);
    }
  else
    {
      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
		   "(for a macro invocation semi)",
		   t->get_token_description (),
		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
		      ? ")"
		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
      add_error (std::move (error));

      /* return empty macro invocation despite possibly parsing mostly valid one
       * - TODO is this a good idea? */
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a non-semicoloned macro invocation (i.e. as pattern or expression).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_invocation (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // parse macro path
  AST::SimplePath macro_path = parse_simple_path ();
  if (macro_path.is_empty ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse macro invocation path");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse internal delim token tree
  AST::DelimTokenTree delim_tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();

  location_t macro_locus = macro_path.get_locus ();

  return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (
    AST::MacroInvocData (std::move (macro_path), std::move (delim_tok_tree)),
    std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus);
}

// Parses a macro rule definition - does not parse semicolons.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::MacroRule
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_rule ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // parse macro matcher
  AST::MacroMatcher matcher = parse_macro_matcher ();

  if (matcher.is_error ())
    return AST::MacroRule::create_error (locus);

  if (!skip_token (MATCH_ARROW))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::MacroRule::create_error (locus);
    }

  // parse transcriber (this is just a delim token tree)
  location_t token_tree_loc = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  AST::MacroTranscriber transcriber (parse_delim_token_tree (), token_tree_loc);

  return AST::MacroRule (std::move (matcher), std::move (transcriber), locus);
}

// Parses a macro matcher (part of a macro rule definition).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::MacroMatcher
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_matcher ()
{
  // save delim type to ensure it is reused later
  AST::DelimType delim_type = AST::PARENS;

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("begun parsing macro matcher");

  // Map tokens to DelimType
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t locus = t->get_locus ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      delim_type = AST::PARENS;
      break;
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      delim_type = AST::SQUARE;
      break;
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      delim_type = AST::CURLY;
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (
	t->get_locus (),
	"unexpected token %qs - expecting delimiters (for a macro matcher)",
	t->get_token_description ()));

      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse actual macro matches
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>> matches;
  // Set of possible preceding macro matches to make sure follow-set
  // restrictions are respected.
  // TODO: Consider using std::reference_wrapper instead of raw pointers?
  std::vector<const AST::MacroMatch *> last_matches;

  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  // parse token trees until the initial delimiter token is found again
  while (!token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> match = parse_macro_match ();

      if (match == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse macro match for macro matcher - found %qs",
	    t->get_token_description ());
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
	}

      if (matches.size () > 0)
	{
	  const auto *last_match = matches.back ().get ();

	  // We want to check if we are dealing with a zeroable repetition
	  bool zeroable = false;
	  if (last_match->get_macro_match_type ()
	      == AST::MacroMatch::MacroMatchType::Repetition)
	    {
	      auto repetition
		= static_cast<const AST::MacroMatchRepetition *> (last_match);

	      if (repetition->get_op ()
		  != AST::MacroMatchRepetition::MacroRepOp::ONE_OR_MORE)
		zeroable = true;
	    }

	  if (!zeroable)
	    last_matches.clear ();

	  last_matches.emplace_back (last_match);

	  for (auto last : last_matches)
	    if (!is_match_compatible (*last, *match))
	      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (
		match->get_match_locus ());
	}

      matches.push_back (std::move (match));

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("pushed back a match in macro matcher");

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // parse end delimiters
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (token_id_matches_delims (t->get_id (), delim_type))
    {
      // tokens match opening delimiter, so skip.
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return AST::MacroMatcher (delim_type, std::move (matches), locus);
    }
  else
    {
      // tokens don't match opening delimiters, so produce error
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs - expecting closing delimiter %qs "
		   "(for a macro matcher)",
		   t->get_token_description (),
		   (delim_type == AST::PARENS
		      ? ")"
		      : (delim_type == AST::SQUARE ? "]" : "}")));
      add_error (std::move (error));

      /* return error macro matcher despite possibly parsing mostly correct one?
       * TODO is this the best idea? */
      return AST::MacroMatcher::create_error (t->get_locus ());
    }
}

// Parses a macro match (syntax match inside a matcher in a macro rule).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match ()
{
  // branch based on token available
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	// must be macro matcher as delimited
	AST::MacroMatcher matcher = parse_macro_matcher ();
	if (matcher.is_error ())
	  {
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse macro matcher in macro match");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatcher> (
	  new AST::MacroMatcher (std::move (matcher)));
      }
      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
	// have to do more lookahead to determine if fragment or repetition
	const_TokenPtr t2 = lexer.peek_token (1);
	switch (t2->get_id ())
	  {
	  case IDENTIFIER:
	  case UNDERSCORE:
	    // macro fragment
	    return parse_macro_match_fragment ();
	  case LEFT_PAREN:
	    // macro repetition
	    return parse_macro_match_repetition ();
	  default:
	    if (token_id_is_keyword (t2->get_id ()) && t2->get_id () != CRATE)
	      {
		// keyword as macro fragment
		return parse_macro_match_fragment ();
	      }
	    else
	      {
		// error: unrecognised
		add_error (Error (
		  t2->get_locus (),
		  "unrecognised token combination %<$%s%> at start of "
		  "macro match - did you mean %<$identifier%> or %<$(%>?",
		  t2->get_token_description ()));

		// skip somewhere?
		return nullptr;
	      }
	  }
      }
    case RIGHT_PAREN:
    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
    case RIGHT_CURLY:
      // not allowed
      add_error (Error (
	t->get_locus (),
	"closing delimiters like %qs are not allowed at the start of a macro "
	"match",
	t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    default:
      // just the token
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
    }
}

// Parses a fragment macro match.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchFragment>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match_fragment ()
{
  location_t fragment_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (DOLLAR_SIGN);

  Identifier ident;
  auto identifier = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (identifier->get_id () == UNDERSCORE)
    ident = {Values::Keywords::UNDERSCORE, identifier->get_locus ()};
  else
    ident = {identifier};

  if (ident.empty ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "missing identifier in macro match fragment");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }
  skip_token (identifier->get_id ());

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // get MacroFragSpec for macro
  const_TokenPtr t = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (t == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  AST::MacroFragSpec frag
    = AST::MacroFragSpec::get_frag_spec_from_str (t->get_str ());
  if (frag.is_error ())
    {
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "invalid fragment specifier %qs in fragment macro match",
		   t->get_str ().c_str ());
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchFragment> (
    new AST::MacroMatchFragment (std::move (ident), frag, fragment_locus));
}

// Parses a repetition macro match.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchRepetition>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_match_repetition ()
{
  skip_token (DOLLAR_SIGN);
  skip_token (LEFT_PAREN);

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch>> matches;

  // parse required first macro match
  std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> initial_match = parse_macro_match ();
  if (initial_match == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"could not parse required first macro match in macro match repetition");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  matches.push_back (std::move (initial_match));

  // parse optional later macro matches
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatch> match = parse_macro_match ();

      if (match == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse macro match in macro match repetition");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      matches.push_back (std::move (match));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  // see if separator token exists
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> separator = nullptr;
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    // repetition operators
    case ASTERISK:
    case PLUS:
    case QUESTION_MARK:
    // delimiters
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case LEFT_CURLY:
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
    case RIGHT_PAREN:
    case RIGHT_CURLY:
    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
      // separator does not exist, so still null and don't skip token
      break;
    default:
      // separator does exist
      separator = std::unique_ptr<AST::Token> (new AST::Token (std::move (t)));
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    }

  // parse repetition operator
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  AST::MacroMatchRepetition::MacroRepOp op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::NONE;
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case ASTERISK:
      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ANY;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case PLUS:
      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ONE_OR_MORE;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case QUESTION_MARK:
      op = AST::MacroMatchRepetition::ZERO_OR_ONE;
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (separator != nullptr)
	{
	  add_error (
	    Error (separator->get_locus (),
		   "the %<?%> macro repetition operator does not take a "
		   "separator"));
	  separator = nullptr;
	}

      break;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "expected macro repetition operator (%<*%>, %<+%>, or %<?%>) in "
	       "macro match - found %qs",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroMatchRepetition> (
    new AST::MacroMatchRepetition (std::move (matches), op,
				   std::move (separator), t->get_locus ()));
}

/* Parses a visibility syntactical production (i.e. creating a non-default
 * visibility) */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::Visibility
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_visibility ()
{
  // check for no visibility
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PUB)
    {
      return AST::Visibility::create_private ();
    }

  auto vis_loc = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // create simple pub visibility if
  // - found no parentheses
  // - found unit type `()`
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LEFT_PAREN
      || lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      return AST::Visibility::create_public (vis_loc);
      // or whatever
    }

  lexer.skip_token ();

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  auto path_loc = t->get_locus ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case CRATE:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);

      return AST::Visibility::create_crate (path_loc, vis_loc);
    case SELF:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);

      return AST::Visibility::create_self (path_loc, vis_loc);
    case SUPER:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);

      return AST::Visibility::create_super (path_loc, vis_loc);
      case IN: {
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse the "in" path as well
	AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();
	if (path.is_empty ())
	  {
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "missing path in pub(in path) visibility");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    // skip after somewhere?
	    return AST::Visibility::create_error ();
	  }

	skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);

	return AST::Visibility::create_in_path (std::move (path), vis_loc);
      }
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (), "unexpected token %qs in visibility",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      lexer.skip_token ();
      return AST::Visibility::create_error ();
    }
}

// Parses a module - either a bodied module or a module defined in another file.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Module>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_module (AST::Visibility vis,
					  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  Unsafety safety = Unsafety::Normal;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
    {
      safety = Unsafety::Unsafe;
      skip_token (UNSAFE);
    }

  skip_token (MOD);

  const_TokenPtr module_name = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (module_name == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier name{module_name};

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case SEMICOLON:
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // Construct an external module
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Module> (
	new AST::Module (std::move (name), std::move (vis),
			 std::move (outer_attrs), locus, safety,
			 lexer.get_filename (), inline_module_stack));
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse inner attributes
	AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

	std::string default_path = name.as_string ();

	if (inline_module_stack.empty ())
	  {
	    std::string filename = lexer.get_filename ();
	    auto slash_idx = filename.rfind (file_separator);
	    if (slash_idx == std::string::npos)
	      slash_idx = 0;
	    else
	      slash_idx++;
	    filename = filename.substr (slash_idx);

	    std::string subdir;
	    if (get_file_subdir (filename, subdir))
	      default_path = subdir + file_separator + name.as_string ();
	  }

	std::string module_path_name
	  = extract_module_path (inner_attrs, outer_attrs, default_path);
	InlineModuleStackScope scope (*this, std::move (module_path_name));

	// parse items
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Item>> items;
	const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
	while (tok->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	  {
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> item = parse_item (false);
	    if (item == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (tok->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse item in module");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }

	    items.push_back (std::move (item));

	    tok = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	  {
	    // skip somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::Module> (
	  new AST::Module (std::move (name), locus, std::move (items),
			   std::move (vis), safety, std::move (inner_attrs),
			   std::move (outer_attrs))); // module name?
      }
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unexpected token %qs in module declaration/definition item",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      lexer.skip_token ();
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses an extern crate declaration (dependency on external crate)
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_extern_crate (AST::Visibility vis,
						AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  if (!skip_token (EXTERN_KW))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (CRATE))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* parse crate reference name - this has its own syntactical rule in reference
   * but seems to not be used elsewhere, so i'm putting it here */
  const_TokenPtr crate_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  std::string crate_name;

  switch (crate_name_tok->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      crate_name = crate_name_tok->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case SELF:
      crate_name = Values::Keywords::SELF;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (crate_name_tok->get_locus (),
	       "expecting crate name (identifier or %<self%>), found %qs",
	       crate_name_tok->get_token_description ()));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // don't parse as clause if it doesn't exist
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate> (
	new AST::ExternCrate (std::move (crate_name), std::move (vis),
			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }

  /* parse as clause - this also has its own syntactical rule in reference and
   * also seems to not be used elsewhere, so including here again. */
  if (!skip_token (AS))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  const_TokenPtr as_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  std::string as_name;

  switch (as_name_tok->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      as_name = as_name_tok->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case UNDERSCORE:
      as_name = Values::Keywords::UNDERSCORE;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (as_name_tok->get_locus (),
	       "expecting as clause name (identifier or %<_%>), found %qs",
	       as_name_tok->get_token_description ()));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternCrate> (
    new AST::ExternCrate (std::move (crate_name), std::move (vis),
			  std::move (outer_attrs), locus, std::move (as_name)));
}

// Parses a use declaration.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::UseDeclaration>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_use_decl (AST::Visibility vis,
					    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  if (!skip_token (USE))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse use tree, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
  if (use_tree == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse use tree in use declaration");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseDeclaration> (
    new AST::UseDeclaration (std::move (use_tree), std::move (vis),
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a use tree (which can be recursive and is actually a base class).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_use_tree ()
{
  /* potential syntax definitions in attempt to get algorithm:
   *  Glob:
   *      <- SimplePath :: *
   *      <- :: *
   *      <- *
   *  Nested tree thing:
   *      <- SimplePath :: { COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
   *      <- :: COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
   *      <- { COMPLICATED_INNER_TREE_THING }
   *  Rebind thing:
   *      <- SimplePath as IDENTIFIER
   *      <- SimplePath as _
   *      <- SimplePath
   */

  /* current plan of attack: try to parse SimplePath first - if fails, one of
   * top two then try parse :: - if fails, one of top two. Next is deciding
   * character for top two. */

  /* Thus, parsing smaller parts of use tree may require feeding into function
   * via parameters (or could handle all in this single function because other
   * use tree types aren't recognised as separate in the spec) */

  // TODO: I think this function is too complex, probably should split it

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // bool has_path = false;
  AST::SimplePath path = parse_simple_path ();

  if (path.is_empty ())
    {
      // has no path, so must be glob or nested tree UseTree type

      bool is_global = false;

      // check for global scope resolution operator
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  is_global = true;
	}

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case ASTERISK:
	  // glob UseTree type
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  if (is_global)
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
	      new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::GLOBAL,
				    AST::SimplePath::create_empty (), locus));
	  else
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
	      new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::NO_PATH,
				    AST::SimplePath::create_empty (), locus));
	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
	    // nested tree UseTree type
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>> use_trees;

	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	      {
		std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
		if (use_tree == nullptr)
		  {
		    break;
		  }

		use_trees.push_back (std::move (use_tree));

		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
		  break;

		lexer.skip_token ();
		t = lexer.peek_token ();
	      }

	    // skip end curly delimiter
	    if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	      {
		// skip after somewhere?
		return nullptr;
	      }

	    if (is_global)
	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
		new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::GLOBAL,
				      AST::SimplePath::create_empty (),
				      std::move (use_trees), locus));
	    else
	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
		new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::NO_PATH,
				      AST::SimplePath::create_empty (),
				      std::move (use_trees), locus));
	  }
	case AS:
	  // this is not allowed
	  add_error (Error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "use declaration with rebind %<as%> requires a valid simple path - "
	    "none found"));

	  skip_after_semicolon ();
	  return nullptr;
	default:
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "unexpected token %qs in use tree with "
			    "no valid simple path (i.e. list"
			    " or glob use tree)",
			    t->get_token_description ()));

	  skip_after_semicolon ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
  else
    {
      /* Due to aforementioned implementation issues, the trailing :: token is
       * consumed by the path, so it can not be used as a disambiguator.
       * NOPE, not true anymore - TODO what are the consequences of this? */

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case ASTERISK:
	  // glob UseTree type
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeGlob> (
	    new AST::UseTreeGlob (AST::UseTreeGlob::PATH_PREFIXED,
				  std::move (path), locus));
	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
	    // nested tree UseTree type
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree>> use_trees;

	    // TODO: think of better control structure
	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	      {
		std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTree> use_tree = parse_use_tree ();
		if (use_tree == nullptr)
		  {
		    break;
		  }

		use_trees.push_back (std::move (use_tree));

		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
		  break;

		lexer.skip_token ();
		t = lexer.peek_token ();
	      }

	    // skip end curly delimiter
	    if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	      {
		// skip after somewhere?
		return nullptr;
	      }

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeList> (
	      new AST::UseTreeList (AST::UseTreeList::PATH_PREFIXED,
				    std::move (path), std::move (use_trees),
				    locus));
	  }
	  case AS: {
	    // rebind UseTree type
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    switch (t->get_id ())
	      {
	      case IDENTIFIER:
		// skip lexer token
		lexer.skip_token ();

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
		  new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::IDENTIFIER,
					  std::move (path), locus, t));
	      case UNDERSCORE:
		// skip lexer token
		lexer.skip_token ();

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
		  new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::WILDCARD,
					  std::move (path), locus,
					  {Values::Keywords::UNDERSCORE,
					   t->get_locus ()}));
	      default:
		add_error (Error (
		  t->get_locus (),
		  "unexpected token %qs in use tree with as clause - expected "
		  "identifier or %<_%>",
		  t->get_token_description ()));

		skip_after_semicolon ();
		return nullptr;
	      }
	  }
	case SEMICOLON:
	  // rebind UseTree type without rebinding - path only

	  // don't skip semicolon - handled in parse_use_tree
	  // lexer.skip_token();

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
	    new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::NONE, std::move (path),
				    locus));
	case COMMA:
	case RIGHT_CURLY:
	  // this may occur in recursive calls - assume it is ok and ignore it
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UseTreeRebind> (
	    new AST::UseTreeRebind (AST::UseTreeRebind::NONE, std::move (path),
				    locus));
	default:
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "unexpected token %qs in use tree with valid path",
			    t->get_token_description ()));

	  // skip_after_semicolon();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
}

// Parses a function (not a method).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Function>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function (AST::Visibility vis,
					    AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // Get qualifiers for function if they exist
  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();

  skip_token (FN_KW);

  // Save function name token
  const_TokenPtr function_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (function_name_tok == nullptr)
    {
      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier function_name{function_name_tok};

  // parse generic params - if exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "function declaration missing opening parentheses before "
		   "parameter list");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  auto initial_param = parse_self_param ();

  if (!initial_param.has_value ()
      && initial_param.error () != ParseSelfError::NOT_SELF)
    return nullptr;

  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    skip_token (COMMA);

  // parse function parameters (only if next token isn't right paren)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> function_params;

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    function_params
      = parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });

  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    function_params.insert (function_params.begin (),
			    std::move (*initial_param));

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "function declaration missing closing parentheses after "
		   "parameter list");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse function return type - if exists
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

  // parse where clause - if exists
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  tl::optional<std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr>> body = tl::nullopt;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    lexer.skip_token ();
  else
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block_expr = parse_block_expr ();
      if (block_expr != nullptr)
	body = std::move (block_expr);
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
    new AST::Function (std::move (function_name), std::move (qualifiers),
		       std::move (generic_params), std::move (function_params),
		       std::move (return_type), std::move (where_clause),
		       std::move (body), std::move (vis),
		       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses function or method qualifiers (i.e. const, unsafe, and extern).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::FunctionQualifiers
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_qualifiers ()
{
  Async async_status = Async::No;
  Const const_status = Const::No;
  Unsafety unsafe_status = Unsafety::Normal;
  bool has_extern = false;
  std::string abi;

  const_TokenPtr t;
  location_t locus;
  // Check in order of const, unsafe, then extern
  for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++)
    {
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
      locus = t->get_locus ();

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case CONST:
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  const_status = Const::Yes;
	  break;
	case ASYNC:
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  async_status = Async::Yes;
	  break;
	default:
	  // const status is still none
	  break;
	}
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      unsafe_status = Unsafety::Unsafe;
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXTERN_KW)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      has_extern = true;

      // detect optional abi name
      const_TokenPtr next_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
      if (next_tok->get_id () == STRING_LITERAL)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  abi = next_tok->get_str ();
	}
    }

  return AST::FunctionQualifiers (locus, async_status, const_status,
				  unsafe_status, has_extern, std::move (abi));
}

// Parses generic (lifetime or type) params inside angle brackets (optional).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_params_in_angles ()
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LEFT_ANGLE)
    {
      // seems to be no generic params, so exit with empty vector
      return std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug ("skipped left angle in generic param");

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params (is_right_angle_tok);

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug ("finished parsing actual generic params (i.e. inside angles)");

  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
    {
      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("failed to skip generics right angle - returning empty "
		  "generic params");

      return std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> ();
    }

  return generic_params;
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_param (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  auto token = lexer.peek_token ();
  auto outer_attrs = parse_outer_attribute ();
  std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam> param;

  switch (token->get_id ())
    {
      case LIFETIME: {
	auto lifetime = parse_lifetime (false);
	if (lifetime.is_error ())
	  {
	    rust_error_at (
	      token->get_locus (),
	      "failed to parse lifetime in generic parameter list");
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    // parse required bounds
	    lifetime_bounds
	      = parse_lifetime_bounds ([is_end_token] (TokenId id) {
		  return is_end_token (id) || id == COMMA;
		});
	  }

	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (new AST::LifetimeParam (
	  std::move (lifetime), std::move (lifetime_bounds),
	  std::move (outer_attrs), token->get_locus ()));
	break;
      }
      case IDENTIFIER: {
	auto type_ident = token->get_str ();
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // parse optional type param bounds
	    type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
	  }

	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // parse required type
	    type = parse_type ();
	    if (!type)
	      {
		rust_error_at (
		  lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		  "failed to parse type in type param in generic params");
		return nullptr;
	      }
	  }

	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> (
	  new AST::TypeParam (std::move (type_ident), token->get_locus (),
			      std::move (type_param_bounds), std::move (type),
			      std::move (outer_attrs)));
	break;
      }
      case CONST: {
	lexer.skip_token ();

	auto name_token = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);

	if (!name_token || !expect_token (COLON))
	  return nullptr;

	auto type = parse_type ();
	if (!type)
	  return nullptr;

	// optional default value
	auto default_expr = AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    auto tok = lexer.peek_token ();
	    default_expr = parse_generic_arg ();

	    if (default_expr.is_error ())
	      rust_error_at (tok->get_locus (),
			     "invalid token for start of default value for "
			     "const generic parameter: expected %<block%>, "
			     "%<identifier%> or %<literal%>, got %qs",
			     token_id_to_str (tok->get_id ()));

	    // At this point, we *know* that we are parsing a const
	    // expression
	    if (default_expr.get_kind () == AST::GenericArg::Kind::Either)
	      default_expr = default_expr.disambiguate_to_const ();
	  }

	param = std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstGenericParam> (
	  new AST::ConstGenericParam (name_token->get_str (), std::move (type),
				      default_expr, std::move (outer_attrs),
				      token->get_locus ()));

	break;
      }
    default:
      // FIXME: Can we clean this last call with a method call?
      rust_error_at (token->get_locus (),
		     "unexpected token when parsing generic parameters: %qs",
		     token->as_string ().c_str ());
      return nullptr;
    }

  return param;
}

/* Parse generic (lifetime or type) params NOT INSIDE ANGLE BRACKETS!!! Almost
 * always parse_generic_params_in_angles is what is wanted. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params;

  /* can't parse lifetime and type params separately due to lookahead issues
   * thus, parse them all here */

  /* HACK: used to retain attribute data if a lifetime param is tentatively
   * parsed but it turns out to be type param */
  AST::Attribute parsed_outer_attr = AST::Attribute::create_empty ();

  // Did we parse a generic type param yet
  auto type_seen = false;
  // Did the user write a lifetime parameter after a type one
  auto order_error = false;

  // parse lifetime params
  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      auto param = parse_generic_param (is_end_token);
      if (param)
	{
	  // TODO: Handle `Const` here as well if necessary
	  if (param->get_kind () == AST::GenericParam::Kind::Type)
	    type_seen = true;
	  else if (param->get_kind () == AST::GenericParam::Kind::Lifetime
		   && type_seen)
	    order_error = true;

	  generic_params.emplace_back (std::move (param));
	  maybe_skip_token (COMMA);
	}
      else
	break;
    }

  // FIXME: Add reordering hint
  if (order_error)
    {
      Error error (generic_params.front ()->get_locus (),
		   "invalid order for generic parameters: lifetime parameters "
		   "must be declared prior to type and const parameters");
      add_error (std::move (error));
    }

  generic_params.shrink_to_fit ();
  return generic_params;
}

/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (pointers). Will also consume any
 * trailing comma. No extra checks for end token. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>> lifetime_params;

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
    {
      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();

      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
	{
	  // can't treat as error as only way to get out with trailing comma
	  break;
	}

      lifetime_params.push_back (std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (
	new AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime_param))));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return lifetime_params;
}

/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (pointers). Will also consume any
 * trailing comma. Has extra is_end_token predicate checking. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam>> lifetime_params;

  // if end_token is not specified, it defaults to EOF, so should work fine
  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();

      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
	{
	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime params just because
	   * one failed? */
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse lifetime param in lifetime params");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      lifetime_params.push_back (std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeParam> (
	new AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime_param))));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return lifetime_params;
}

/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (objects). Will also consume any
 * trailing comma. No extra checks for end token.
 * TODO: is this best solution? implements most of the same algorithm. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params_objs ()
{
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> lifetime_params;

  // bad control structure as end token cannot be guaranteed
  while (true)
    {
      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();

      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
	{
	  // not an error as only way to exit if trailing comma
	  break;
	}

      lifetime_params.push_back (std::move (lifetime_param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return lifetime_params;
}

/* Parses lifetime generic parameters (objects). Will also consume any
 * trailing comma. Has extra is_end_token predicate checking.
 * TODO: is this best solution? implements most of the same algorithm. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_params_objs (
  EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> lifetime_params;

  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      AST::LifetimeParam lifetime_param = parse_lifetime_param ();

      if (lifetime_param.is_error ())
	{
	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime params just because
	   * one failed? */
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse lifetime param in lifetime params");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      lifetime_params.push_back (std::move (lifetime_param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return lifetime_params;
}

/* Parses a sequence of a certain grammar rule in object form (not pointer or
 * smart pointer), delimited by commas and ending when 'is_end_token' is
 * satisfied (templated). Will also consume any trailing comma.
 * FIXME: this cannot be used due to member function pointer problems (i.e.
 * parsing_function cannot be specified properly) */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename ParseFunction, typename EndTokenPred>
auto
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_non_ptr_sequence (
  ParseFunction parsing_function, EndTokenPred is_end_token,
  std::string error_msg) -> std::vector<decltype (parsing_function ())>
{
  std::vector<decltype (parsing_function ())> params;

  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      auto param = parsing_function ();

      if (param.is_error ())
	{
	  // TODO: is it worth throwing away all params just because one
	  // failed?
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       std::move (error_msg));
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      params.push_back (std::move (param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return params;
}

/* Parses a single lifetime generic parameter (not including comma). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::LifetimeParam
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_param ()
{
  // parse outer attribute, which is optional and may not exist
  AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();

  // save lifetime token - required
  const_TokenPtr lifetime_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (lifetime_tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
    {
      // if lifetime is missing, must not be a lifetime param, so return null
      return AST::LifetimeParam::create_error ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();
  AST::Lifetime lifetime (AST::Lifetime::NAMED, lifetime_tok->get_str (),
			  lifetime_tok->get_locus ());

  // parse lifetime bounds, if it exists
  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      // parse lifetime bounds
      lifetime_bounds = parse_lifetime_bounds ();
      // TODO: have end token passed in?
    }

  return AST::LifetimeParam (std::move (lifetime), std::move (lifetime_bounds),
			     std::move (outer_attr),
			     lifetime_tok->get_locus ());
}

// Parses type generic parameters. Will also consume any trailing comma.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_params ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>> type_params;

  // infinite loop with break on failure as no info on ending token
  while (true)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> type_param = parse_type_param ();

      if (type_param == nullptr)
	{
	  // break if fails to parse
	  break;
	}

      type_params.push_back (std::move (type_param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  type_params.shrink_to_fit ();
  return type_params;
}

// Parses type generic parameters. Will also consume any trailing comma.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>> type_params;

  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> type_param = parse_type_param ();

      if (type_param == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type param in type params");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      type_params.push_back (std::move (type_param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  type_params.shrink_to_fit ();
  return type_params;
  /* TODO: this shares most code with parse_lifetime_params - good place to
   * use template (i.e. parse_non_ptr_sequence if doable) */
}

/* Parses a single type (generic) parameter, not including commas. May change
 * to return value. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param ()
{
  // parse outer attribute, which is optional and may not exist
  AST::Attribute outer_attr = parse_outer_attribute ();

  const_TokenPtr identifier_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (identifier_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
    {
      // return null as type param can't exist without this required
      // identifier
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier ident{identifier_tok};
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse type param bounds (if they exist)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse type param bounds, which may or may not exist
      type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
    }

  // parse type (if it exists)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse type (now required)
      type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type in type param");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParam> (
    new AST::TypeParam (std::move (ident), identifier_tok->get_locus (),
			std::move (type_param_bounds), std::move (type),
			std::move (outer_attr)));
}

/* Parses regular (i.e. non-generic) parameters in functions or methods. Also
 * has end token handling. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_params (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> params;

  if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    return params;

  auto initial_param = parse_function_param ();

  // Return empty parameter list if no parameter there
  if (initial_param == nullptr)
    {
      // TODO: is this an error?
      return params;
    }

  params.push_back (std::move (initial_param));

  // maybe think of a better control structure here - do-while with an initial
  // error state? basically, loop through parameter list until can't find any
  // more params
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      // skip comma if applies
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // TODO: strictly speaking, shouldn't there be no trailing comma?
      if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
	break;

      // now, as right paren would break, function param is required
      auto param = parse_function_param ();
      if (param == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse function param (in function params)");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> ();
	}

      params.push_back (std::move (param));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  params.shrink_to_fit ();
  return params;
}

/* Parses a single regular (i.e. non-generic) parameter in a function or
 * method, i.e. the "name: type" bit. Also handles it not existing. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_param ()
{
  // parse outer attributes if they exist
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // TODO: should saved location be at start of outer attributes or pattern?
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS) // Unnamed variadic
    {
      lexer.skip_token (); // Skip ellipsis
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::VariadicParam> (
	AST::VariadicParam (std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }

  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> param_pattern = parse_pattern ();

  // create error function param if it doesn't exist
  if (param_pattern == nullptr)
    {
      // skip after something
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // skip after something
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS) // Named variadic
    {
      lexer.skip_token (); // Skip ellipsis
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::VariadicParam> (
	AST::VariadicParam (std::move (param_pattern), std::move (outer_attrs),
			    locus));
    }
  else
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> param_type = parse_type ();
      if (param_type == nullptr)
	{
	  return nullptr;
	}
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::FunctionParam> (
	AST::FunctionParam (std::move (param_pattern), std::move (param_type),
			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
}

/* Parses a function or method return type syntactical construction. Also
 * handles a function return type not existing. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_return_type ()
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RETURN_TYPE)
    return nullptr;

  // skip return type, as it now obviously exists
  lexer.skip_token ();

  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();

  return type;
}

/* Parses a "where clause" (in a function, struct, method, etc.). Also handles
 * a where clause not existing, in which it will return
 * WhereClause::create_empty(), which can be checked via
 * WhereClause::is_empty(). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::WhereClause
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_where_clause ()
{
  const_TokenPtr where_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (where_tok->get_id () != WHERE)
    {
      // where clause doesn't exist, so create empty one
      return AST::WhereClause::create_empty ();
    }

  lexer.skip_token ();

  /* parse where clause items - this is not a separate rule in the reference
   * so won't be here */
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem>> where_clause_items;

  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == FOR)
    for_lifetimes = parse_for_lifetimes ();

  /* HACK: where clauses end with a right curly or semicolon or equals in all
   * uses currently */
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != LEFT_CURLY && t->get_id () != SEMICOLON
	 && t->get_id () != EQUAL)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem> where_clause_item
	= parse_where_clause_item (for_lifetimes);

      if (where_clause_item == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "failed to parse where clause item");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::WhereClause::create_empty ();
	}

      where_clause_items.push_back (std::move (where_clause_item));

      // also skip comma if it exists
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  where_clause_items.shrink_to_fit ();
  return AST::WhereClause (std::move (where_clause_items));
}

/* Parses a where clause item (lifetime or type bound). Does not parse any
 * commas. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::WhereClauseItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_where_clause_item (
  const std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> &outer_for_lifetimes)
{
  // shitty cheat way of determining lifetime or type bound - test for
  // lifetime
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  if (t->get_id () == LIFETIME)
    return parse_lifetime_where_clause_item ();
  else
    return parse_type_bound_where_clause_item (outer_for_lifetimes);
}

// Parses a lifetime where clause item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_where_clause_item ()
{
  AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime (false);
  if (lifetime.is_error ())
    {
      // TODO: error here?
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // TODO: skip after somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds = parse_lifetime_bounds ();
  // TODO: have end token passed in?

  location_t locus = lifetime.get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem> (
    new AST::LifetimeWhereClauseItem (std::move (lifetime),
				      std::move (lifetime_bounds), locus));
}

// Parses a type bound where clause item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_bound_where_clause_item (
  const std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> &outer_for_lifetimes)
{
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes = outer_for_lifetimes;

  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // TODO: skip after somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == FOR)
    {
      auto for_lifetimes_inner = parse_for_lifetimes ();
      for_lifetimes.insert (for_lifetimes.end (), for_lifetimes_inner.begin (),
			    for_lifetimes_inner.end ());
    }

  // parse type param bounds if they exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds
    = parse_type_param_bounds ();

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem> (
    new AST::TypeBoundWhereClauseItem (std::move (for_lifetimes),
				       std::move (type),
				       std::move (type_param_bounds), locus));
}

// Parses a for lifetimes clause, including the for keyword and angle
// brackets.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_for_lifetimes ()
{
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> params;

  if (!skip_token (FOR))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return params;
    }

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return params;
    }

  /* cannot specify end token due to parsing problems with '>' tokens being
   * nested */
  params = parse_lifetime_params_objs (is_right_angle_tok);

  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
    {
      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("failed to skip generics right angle after (supposedly) "
		  "finished parsing where clause items");
      // ok, well this gets called.

      // skip after somewhere?
      return params;
    }

  return params;
}

// Parses type parameter bounds in where clause or generic arguments.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bounds ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;

  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> initial_bound
    = parse_type_param_bound ();

  // quick exit if null
  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
    {
      /* error? type param bounds must have at least one term, but are bounds
       * optional? */
      return type_param_bounds;
    }
  type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound = parse_type_param_bound ();
      if (bound == nullptr)
	{
	  /* not an error: bound is allowed to be null as trailing plus is
	   * allowed */
	  return type_param_bounds;
	}

      type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));
    }

  type_param_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
  return type_param_bounds;
}

/* Parses type parameter bounds in where clause or generic arguments, with end
 * token handling. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;

  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> initial_bound
    = parse_type_param_bound ();

  // quick exit if null
  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
    {
      /* error? type param bounds must have at least one term, but are bounds
       * optional? */
      return type_param_bounds;
    }
  type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // break if end token character
      if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
	break;

      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound = parse_type_param_bound ();
      if (bound == nullptr)
	{
	  // TODO how wise is it to ditch all bounds if only one failed?
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type param bound in type param bounds");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      type_param_bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));
    }

  type_param_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
  return type_param_bounds;
}

/* Parses a single type parameter bound in a where clause or generic argument.
 * Does not parse the '+' between arguments. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_param_bound ()
{
  // shitty cheat way of determining lifetime or trait bound - test for
  // lifetime
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LIFETIME:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::Lifetime> (
	new AST::Lifetime (parse_lifetime (false)));
    case LEFT_PAREN:
    case QUESTION_MARK:
    case FOR:
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      return parse_trait_bound ();
    default:
      // don't error - assume this is fine TODO
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a trait bound type param bound.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_bound ()
{
  bool has_parens = false;
  bool has_question_mark = false;

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  /* parse optional `for lifetimes`. */
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == FOR)
    for_lifetimes = parse_for_lifetimes ();

  // handle trait bound being in parentheses
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN)
    {
      has_parens = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // handle having question mark (optional)
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == QUESTION_MARK)
    {
      has_question_mark = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // handle TypePath
  AST::TypePath type_path = parse_type_path ();

  // handle closing parentheses
  if (has_parens)
    {
      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	{
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> (
    new AST::TraitBound (std::move (type_path), locus, has_parens,
			 has_question_mark, std::move (for_lifetimes)));
}

// Parses lifetime bounds.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<AST::Lifetime>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_bounds ()
{
  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;

  while (true)
    {
      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime (false);

      // quick exit for parsing failure
      if (lifetime.is_error ())
	break;

      lifetime_bounds.push_back (std::move (lifetime));

      /* plus is maybe not allowed at end - spec defines it weirdly, so
       * assuming allowed at end */
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PLUS)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
  return lifetime_bounds;
}

// Parses lifetime bounds, with added check for ending token.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<AST::Lifetime>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime_bounds (EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_bounds;

  while (!is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    {
      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime (false);

      if (lifetime.is_error ())
	{
	  /* TODO: is it worth throwing away all lifetime bound info just
	   * because one failed? */
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse lifetime in lifetime bounds");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      lifetime_bounds.push_back (std::move (lifetime));

      /* plus is maybe not allowed at end - spec defines it weirdly, so
       * assuming allowed at end */
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PLUS)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  lifetime_bounds.shrink_to_fit ();
  return lifetime_bounds;
}

/* Parses a lifetime token (named, 'static, or '_). Also handles lifetime not
 * existing. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::Lifetime
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lifetime (bool allow_elided)
{
  const_TokenPtr lifetime_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (lifetime_tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
    {
      return (allow_elided) ? AST::Lifetime::elided ()
			    : AST::Lifetime::error ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  return lifetime_from_token (lifetime_tok);
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::Lifetime
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::lifetime_from_token (const_TokenPtr tok)
{
  location_t locus = tok->get_locus ();
  std::string lifetime_ident = tok->get_str ();

  if (lifetime_ident == "static")
    {
      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::STATIC, "", locus);
    }
  else if (lifetime_ident == "_")
    {
      // Explicitly and implicitly elided lifetimes follow the same rules.
      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::WILDCARD, "", locus);
    }
  else
    {
      return AST::Lifetime (AST::Lifetime::NAMED, std::move (lifetime_ident),
			    locus);
    }
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalTypeItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_external_type_item (AST::Visibility vis,
						      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (TYPE);

  const_TokenPtr alias_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (alias_name_tok == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse identifier in external opaque type");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    return nullptr;

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalTypeItem> (
    new AST::ExternalTypeItem (alias_name_tok->get_str (), std::move (vis),
			       std::move (outer_attrs), std::move (locus)));
}

// Parses a "type alias" (typedef) item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeAlias>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_alias (AST::Visibility vis,
					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (TYPE);

  // TODO: use this token for identifier when finished that
  const_TokenPtr alias_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (alias_name_tok == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse identifier in type alias");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier alias_name{alias_name_tok};

  // parse generic params, which may not exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // parse where clause, which may not exist
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type_to_alias = parse_type ();

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // should be skipping past this, not the next line
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeAlias> (
    new AST::TypeAlias (std::move (alias_name), std::move (generic_params),
			std::move (where_clause), std::move (type_to_alias),
			std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parse a struct item AST node.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Struct>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct (AST::Visibility vis,
					  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* TODO: determine best way to parse the proper struct vs tuple struct -
   * share most of initial constructs so lookahead might be impossible, and if
   * not probably too expensive. Best way is probably unified parsing for the
   * initial parts and then pass them in as params to more derived functions.
   * Alternatively, just parse everything in this one function - do this if
   * function not too long. */

  /* Proper struct <- 'struct' IDENTIFIER generic_params? where_clause? ( '{'
   * struct_fields? '}' | ';' ) */
  /* Tuple struct <- 'struct' IDENTIFIER generic_params? '(' tuple_fields? ')'
   * where_clause? ';' */
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (STRUCT_KW);

  // parse struct name
  const_TokenPtr name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (name_tok == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse struct or tuple struct identifier");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier struct_name{name_tok};

  // parse generic params, which may or may not exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // branch on next token - determines whether proper struct or tuple struct
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN)
    {
      // tuple struct

      // skip left parenthesis
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse tuple fields
      std::vector<AST::TupleField> tuple_fields;
      // Might be empty tuple for unit tuple struct.
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	tuple_fields = std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
      else
	tuple_fields = parse_tuple_fields ();

      // tuple parameters must have closing parenthesis
      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	{
	  skip_after_semicolon ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse where clause, which is optional
      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

      if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	{
	  // can't skip after semicolon because it's meant to be here
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStruct> (
	new AST::TupleStruct (std::move (tuple_fields), std::move (struct_name),
			      std::move (generic_params),
			      std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis),
			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }

  // assume it is a proper struct being parsed and continue outside of switch
  // - label only here to suppress warning

  // parse where clause, which is optional
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  // branch on next token - determines whether struct is a unit struct
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	// struct with body

	// skip curly bracket
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse struct fields, if any
	std::vector<AST::StructField> struct_fields
	  = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	  {
	    // skip somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructStruct> (new AST::StructStruct (
	  std::move (struct_fields), std::move (struct_name),
	  std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause), false,
	  std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
      }
    case SEMICOLON:
      // unit struct declaration

      lexer.skip_token ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructStruct> (
	new AST::StructStruct (std::move (struct_name),
			       std::move (generic_params),
			       std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis),
			       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs in struct declaration",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses struct fields in struct declarations.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<AST::StructField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_fields ()
{
  std::vector<AST::StructField> fields;

  AST::StructField initial_field = parse_struct_field ();

  // Return empty field list if no field there
  if (initial_field.is_error ())
    return fields;

  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      AST::StructField field = parse_struct_field ();

      if (field.is_error ())
	{
	  // would occur with trailing comma, so allowed
	  break;
	}

      fields.push_back (std::move (field));
    }

  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
  return fields;
  // TODO: template if possible (parse_non_ptr_seq)
}

// Parses struct fields in struct declarations.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<AST::StructField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_fields (EndTokenPred is_end_tok)
{
  std::vector<AST::StructField> fields;

  AST::StructField initial_field = parse_struct_field ();

  // Return empty field list if no field there
  if (initial_field.is_error ())
    return fields;

  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (is_end_tok (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
	break;

      AST::StructField field = parse_struct_field ();
      if (field.is_error ())
	{
	  /* TODO: should every field be ditched just because one couldn't be
	   * parsed? */
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse struct field in struct fields");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      fields.push_back (std::move (field));
    }

  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
  return fields;
  // TODO: template if possible (parse_non_ptr_seq)
}

// Parses a single struct field (in a struct definition). Does not parse
// commas.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::StructField
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_field ()
{
  // parse outer attributes, if they exist
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // parse visibility, if it exists
  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // parse field name
  const_TokenPtr field_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (field_name_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
    {
      // if not identifier, assumes there is no struct field and exits - not
      // necessarily error
      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
    }
  Identifier field_name{field_name_tok};
  lexer.skip_token ();

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
    }

  // parse field type - this is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> field_type = parse_type ();
  if (field_type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse type in struct field definition");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere
      return AST::StructField::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::StructField (std::move (field_name), std::move (field_type),
			   std::move (vis), locus, std::move (outer_attrs));
}

// Parses tuple fields in tuple/tuple struct declarations.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<AST::TupleField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_fields ()
{
  std::vector<AST::TupleField> fields;

  AST::TupleField initial_field = parse_tuple_field ();

  // Return empty field list if no field there
  if (initial_field.is_error ())
    {
      return fields;
    }

  fields.push_back (std::move (initial_field));

  // maybe think of a better control structure here - do-while with an initial
  // error state? basically, loop through field list until can't find any more
  // params HACK: all current syntax uses of tuple fields have them ending
  // with a right paren token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      // skip comma if applies - e.g. trailing comma
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // break out due to right paren if it exists
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	{
	  break;
	}

      AST::TupleField field = parse_tuple_field ();
      if (field.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse tuple field in tuple fields");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
	}

      fields.push_back (std::move (field));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  fields.shrink_to_fit ();
  return fields;

  // TODO: this shares basically all code with function params and struct
  // fields
  // - templates?
}

/* Parses a single tuple struct field in a tuple struct definition. Does not
 * parse commas. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::TupleField
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_field ()
{
  // parse outer attributes if they exist
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // parse visibility if it exists
  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // parse type, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> field_type = parse_type ();
  if (field_type == nullptr)
    {
      // error if null
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse type in tuple struct field");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after something
      return AST::TupleField::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::TupleField (std::move (field_type), std::move (vis), locus,
			  std::move (outer_attrs));
}

// Parses a Rust "enum" tagged union item definition.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Enum>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum (AST::Visibility vis,
					AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (ENUM_KW);

  // parse enum name
  const_TokenPtr enum_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (enum_name_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier enum_name = {enum_name_tok};

  // parse generic params (of enum container, not enum variants) if they exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // parse where clause if it exists
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse actual enum variant definitions
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> enum_items
    = parse_enum_items ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Enum> (
    new AST::Enum (std::move (enum_name), std::move (vis),
		   std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause),
		   std::move (enum_items), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses the enum variants inside an enum definiton.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_items ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> items;

  std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> initial_item = parse_enum_item ();

  // Return empty item list if no field there
  if (initial_item == nullptr)
    return items;

  items.push_back (std::move (initial_item));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> item = parse_enum_item ();
      if (item == nullptr)
	{
	  // this would occur with a trailing comma, which is allowed
	  break;
	}

      items.push_back (std::move (item));
    }

  items.shrink_to_fit ();
  return items;

  /* TODO: use template if doable (parse_non_ptr_sequence) */
}

// Parses the enum variants inside an enum definiton.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_items (EndTokenPred is_end_tok)
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>> items;

  std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> initial_item = parse_enum_item ();

  // Return empty item list if no field there
  if (initial_item == nullptr)
    return items;

  items.push_back (std::move (initial_item));

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (is_end_tok (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
	break;

      std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> item = parse_enum_item ();
      if (item == nullptr)
	{
	  /* TODO should this ignore all successfully parsed enum items just
	   * because one failed? */
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse enum item in enum items");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return {};
	}

      items.push_back (std::move (item));
    }

  items.shrink_to_fit ();
  return items;

  /* TODO: use template if doable (parse_non_ptr_sequence) */
}

/* Parses a single enum variant item in an enum definition. Does not parse
 * commas. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_enum_item ()
{
  // parse outer attributes if they exist
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // parse visibility, which may or may not exist
  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  // parse name for enum item, which is required
  const_TokenPtr item_name_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (item_name_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
    {
      // this may not be an error but it means there is no enum item here
      return nullptr;
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();
  Identifier item_name{item_name_tok};

  // branch based on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
      case LEFT_PAREN: {
	// tuple enum item
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::vector<AST::TupleField> tuple_fields;
	// Might be empty tuple for unit tuple enum variant.
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	  tuple_fields = std::vector<AST::TupleField> ();
	else
	  tuple_fields = parse_tuple_fields ();

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemTuple> (new AST::EnumItemTuple (
	  std::move (item_name), std::move (vis), std::move (tuple_fields),
	  std::move (outer_attrs), item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	// struct enum item
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::vector<AST::StructField> struct_fields
	  = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemStruct> (new AST::EnumItemStruct (
	  std::move (item_name), std::move (vis), std::move (struct_fields),
	  std::move (outer_attrs), item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case EQUAL: {
	// discriminant enum item
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> discriminant_expr = parse_expr ();

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItemDiscriminant> (
	  new AST::EnumItemDiscriminant (std::move (item_name), std::move (vis),
					 std::move (discriminant_expr),
					 std::move (outer_attrs),
					 item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
      }
    default:
      // regular enum with just an identifier
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::EnumItem> (
	new AST::EnumItem (std::move (item_name), std::move (vis),
			   std::move (outer_attrs),
			   item_name_tok->get_locus ()));
    }
}

// Parses a C-style (and C-compat) untagged union declaration.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Union>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_union (AST::Visibility vis,
					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* hack - "weak keyword" by finding identifier called "union" (lookahead in
   * item switch) */
  const_TokenPtr union_keyword = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  rust_assert (union_keyword->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::UNION);
  location_t locus = union_keyword->get_locus ();

  // parse actual union name
  const_TokenPtr union_name_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (union_name_tok == nullptr)
    {
      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier union_name{union_name_tok};

  // parse optional generic parameters
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // parse optional where clause
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* parse union inner items as "struct fields" because hey, syntax reuse.
   * Spec said so. */
  std::vector<AST::StructField> union_fields
    = parse_struct_fields ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_CURLY; });

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      // skip after somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Union> (
    new AST::Union (std::move (union_name), std::move (vis),
		    std::move (generic_params), std::move (where_clause),
		    std::move (union_fields), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

/* Parses a "constant item" (compile-time constant to maybe "inline"
 * throughout the program - like constexpr). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_const_item (AST::Visibility vis,
					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (CONST);

  /* get constant identifier - this is either a proper identifier or the _
   * wildcard */
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  // make default identifier the underscore wildcard one
  std::string ident (Values::Keywords::UNDERSCORE);
  switch (ident_tok->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      ident = ident_tok->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case UNDERSCORE:
      // do nothing - identifier is already "_"
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (ident_tok->get_locus (),
	       "expected item name (identifier or %<_%>) in constant item "
	       "declaration - found %qs",
	       ident_tok->get_token_description ()));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse constant type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();

  // A const with no given expression value
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem> (
	new AST::ConstantItem (std::move (ident), std::move (vis),
			       std::move (type), std::move (outer_attrs),
			       locus));
    }

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse constant expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ConstantItem> (
    new AST::ConstantItem (std::move (ident), std::move (vis), std::move (type),
			   std::move (expr), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a "static item" (static storage item, with 'static lifetime).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::StaticItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_static_item (AST::Visibility vis,
					       AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (STATIC_KW);

  // determine whether static item is mutable
  bool is_mut = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
    {
      is_mut = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse static item type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse static item expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // skip after somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::StaticItem> (
    new AST::StaticItem (std::move (ident), is_mut, std::move (type),
			 std::move (expr), std::move (vis),
			 std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a trait definition item, including unsafe ones.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Trait>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait (AST::Visibility vis,
					 AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  bool is_unsafe = false;
  bool is_auto_trait = false;

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
    {
      is_unsafe = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == AUTO)
    {
      is_auto_trait = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  skip_token (TRAIT);

  // parse trait name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  // parse generic parameters (if they exist)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // create placeholder type param bounds in case they don't exist
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> type_param_bounds;

  // parse type param bounds (if they exist)
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds (
	[] (TokenId id) { return id == WHERE || id == LEFT_CURLY; });
      // type_param_bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
    }

  // parse where clause (if it exists)
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse inner attrs (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse trait items
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem>> trait_items;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem> trait_item = parse_trait_item ();

      if (trait_item == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse trait item in trait");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      trait_items.push_back (std::move (trait_item));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      // skip after something
      return nullptr;
    }

  trait_items.shrink_to_fit ();
  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Trait> (
    new AST::Trait (std::move (ident), is_unsafe, is_auto_trait,
		    std::move (generic_params), std::move (type_param_bounds),
		    std::move (where_clause), std::move (trait_items),
		    std::move (vis), std::move (outer_attrs),
		    std::move (inner_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a trait item used inside traits (not trait, the Item).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_item ()
{
  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  // lookahead to determine what type of trait item to parse
  const_TokenPtr tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    case TYPE:
      return parse_trait_type (std::move (outer_attrs), vis);
    case CONST:
      // disambiguate with function qualifier
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
	{
	  return parse_trait_const (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      // else, fallthrough to function
      // TODO: find out how to disable gcc "implicit fallthrough" error
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    case ASYNC:
    case UNSAFE:
    case EXTERN_KW:
      case FN_KW: {
	/* function and method can't be disambiguated by lookahead alone
	 * (without a lot of work and waste), so either make a
	 * "parse_trait_function_or_method" or parse here mostly and pass in
	 * most parameters (or if short enough, parse whole thing here). */
	// parse function and method here

	// parse function or method qualifiers
	AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();

	skip_token (FN_KW);

	// parse function or method name
	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
	  return nullptr;

	Identifier ident{ident_tok};

	// parse generic params
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
	  = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

	if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	/* now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening
	 * "self" param */
	auto initial_param = parse_self_param ();
	if (!initial_param.has_value () && initial_param.error () != NOT_SELF)
	  return nullptr;
	/* FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for
	 * a function */
	bool is_method = false;
	if (initial_param.has_value ())
	  {
	    if ((*initial_param)->is_self ())
	      is_method = true;

	    /* skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed
	     * in same way */
	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
	      lexer.skip_token ();
	  }

	// parse trait function params
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> function_params
	  = parse_function_params (
	    [] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	if (initial_param.has_value ())
	  function_params.insert (function_params.begin (),
				  std::move (*initial_param));

	// parse return type (optional)
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

	// parse where clause (optional)
	AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

	// parse semicolon or function definition (in block)
	const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> definition = nullptr;
	switch (t->get_id ())
	  {
	  case SEMICOLON:
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    // definition is already nullptr, so don't need to change it
	    break;
	  case LEFT_CURLY:
	    definition = parse_block_expr ();
	    /* FIXME: are these outer attributes meant to be passed into the
	     * block? */
	    break;
	  default:
	    add_error (
	      Error (t->get_locus (),
		     "expected %<;%> or definiton at the end of trait %s "
		     "definition - found %qs instead",
		     is_method ? "method" : "function",
		     t->get_token_description ()));

	    // skip?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// do actual if instead of ternary for return value optimisation
	if (is_method)
	  {
	    AST::TraitMethodDecl method_decl (std::move (ident),
					      std::move (qualifiers),
					      std::move (generic_params),
					      std::move (function_params),
					      std::move (return_type),
					      std::move (where_clause));

	    // TODO: does this (method_decl) need move?
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemMethod> (
	      new AST::TraitItemMethod (std::move (method_decl),
					std::move (definition),
					std::move (outer_attrs),
					tok->get_locus ()));
	  }
	else
	  {
	    AST::TraitFunctionDecl function_decl (std::move (ident),
						  std::move (qualifiers),
						  std::move (generic_params),
						  std::move (function_params),
						  std::move (return_type),
						  std::move (where_clause));

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemFunc> (new AST::TraitItemFunc (
	      std::move (function_decl), std::move (definition),
	      std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
	  }
      }
      default: {
	// TODO: try and parse macro invocation semi - if fails, maybe error.
	std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItem> macro_invoc
	  = parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);

	if (macro_invoc == nullptr)
	  {
	    // TODO: error?
	    return nullptr;
	  }
	else
	  {
	    return macro_invoc;
	  }
	/* FIXME: macro invocations can only start with certain tokens. be
	 * more picky with these? */
      }
    }
}

// Parse a typedef trait item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemType>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_type (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      AST::Visibility vis)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (TYPE);

  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;

  // parse optional colon
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse optional type param bounds
      bounds
	= parse_type_param_bounds ([] (TokenId id) { return id == SEMICOLON; });
      // bounds = parse_type_param_bounds ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemType> (
    new AST::TraitItemType (std::move (ident), std::move (bounds),
			    std::move (outer_attrs), vis, locus));
}

// Parses a constant trait item.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemConst>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_const (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (CONST);

  // parse constant item name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse constant trait item type
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();

  // parse constant trait body expression, if it exists
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> const_body = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // expression must exist, so parse it
      const_body = parse_expr ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // skip after something?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitItemConst> (
    new AST::TraitItemConst (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
			     std::move (const_body), std::move (outer_attrs),
			     locus));
}

/* Parses a struct "impl" item (both inherent impl and trait impl can be
 * parsed here), */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Impl>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_impl (AST::Visibility vis,
					AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* Note that only trait impls are allowed to be unsafe. So if unsafe, it
   * must be a trait impl. However, this isn't enough for full disambiguation,
   * so don't branch here. */
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  bool is_unsafe = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == UNSAFE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      is_unsafe = true;
    }

  if (!skip_token (IMPL))
    {
      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse generic params (shared by trait and inherent impls)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // Again, trait impl-only feature, but optional one, so can be used for
  // branching yet.
  bool has_exclam = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXCLAM)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      has_exclam = true;
    }

  /* FIXME: code that doesn't look shit for TypePath. Also, make sure this
   * doesn't parse too much and not work. */
  AST::TypePath type_path = parse_type_path ();
  if (type_path.is_error () || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != FOR)
    {
      /* cannot parse type path (or not for token next, at least), so must be
       * inherent impl */

      // hacky conversion of TypePath stack object to Type pointer
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
      if (!type_path.is_error ())
	type = std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePath> (
	  new AST::TypePath (std::move (type_path)));
      else
	type = parse_type ();

      // Type is required, so error if null
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse type in inherent impl");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_next_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse optional where clause
      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

      if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
	{
	  // TODO: does this still skip properly?
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse inner attributes (optional)
      AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

      // parse inherent impl items
      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::AssociatedItem>> impl_items;

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	{
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::AssociatedItem> impl_item
	    = parse_inherent_impl_item ();

	  if (impl_item == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (
		lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		"failed to parse inherent impl item in inherent impl");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  impl_items.push_back (std::move (impl_item));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}

      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	{
	  // skip somewhere
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully parsed inherent impl");

      impl_items.shrink_to_fit ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::InherentImpl> (new AST::InherentImpl (
	std::move (impl_items), std::move (generic_params), std::move (type),
	std::move (where_clause), std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
	std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
  else
    {
      // type path must both be valid and next token is for, so trait impl
      if (!skip_token (FOR))
	{
	  skip_after_next_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse type
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
      // ensure type is included as it is required
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse type in trait impl");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_next_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse optional where clause
      AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

      if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
	{
	  // TODO: does this still skip properly?
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse inner attributes (optional)
      AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

      // parse trait impl items
      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>> impl_items;

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	{
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem> impl_item
	    = parse_trait_impl_item ();

	  if (impl_item == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse trait impl item in trait impl");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  impl_items.push_back (std::move (impl_item));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();

	  // DEBUG
	  rust_debug ("successfully parsed a trait impl item");
	}
      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully finished trait impl items");

      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	{
	  // skip somewhere
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully parsed trait impl");

      impl_items.shrink_to_fit ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImpl> (
	new AST::TraitImpl (std::move (type_path), is_unsafe, has_exclam,
			    std::move (impl_items), std::move (generic_params),
			    std::move (type), std::move (where_clause),
			    std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
}

// Parses a single inherent impl item (item inside an inherent impl block).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AssociatedItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inherent_impl_item ()
{
  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // TODO: cleanup - currently an unreadable mess

  // branch on next token:
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      // FIXME: Arthur: Do we need to some lookahead here?
      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case CRATE:
      case PUB: {
	// visibility, so not a macro invocation semi - must be constant,
	// function, or method
	AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

	// TODO: is a recursive call to parse_inherent_impl_item better?
	switch (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
	  {
	  case EXTERN_KW:
	  case UNSAFE:
	  case FN_KW:
	    // function or method
	    return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
							   std::move (
							     outer_attrs));
	  case CONST:
	    // lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or
	    // const item
	    t = lexer.peek_token (1);

	    switch (t->get_id ())
	      {
	      case IDENTIFIER:
	      case UNDERSCORE:
		return parse_const_item (std::move (vis),
					 std::move (outer_attrs));
	      case UNSAFE:
	      case EXTERN_KW:
	      case FN_KW:
		return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (std::move (vis),
							       std::move (
								 outer_attrs));
	      default:
		add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
				  "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const "
				  "item in inherent impl",
				  t->get_token_description ()));

		lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
		return nullptr;
	      }
	  default:
	    add_error (
	      Error (t->get_locus (),
		     "unrecognised token %qs for item in inherent impl",
		     t->get_token_description ()));
	    // skip?
	    return nullptr;
	  }
      }
    case ASYNC:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case UNSAFE:
    case FN_KW:
      // function or method
      return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
	AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
    case CONST:
      /* lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or const
       * item */
      t = lexer.peek_token (1);

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case IDENTIFIER:
	case UNDERSCORE:
	  return parse_const_item (AST::Visibility::create_private (),
				   std::move (outer_attrs));
	case UNSAFE:
	case EXTERN_KW:
	case FN_KW:
	  return parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
	    AST::Visibility::create_private (), std::move (outer_attrs));
	default:
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const item "
			    "in inherent impl",
			    t->get_token_description ()));

	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	  return nullptr;
	}
      rust_unreachable ();
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs for item in inherent impl",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* For internal use only by parse_inherent_impl_item() - splits giant method
 * into smaller ones and prevents duplication of logic. Strictly, this parses
 * a function or method item inside an inherent impl item block. */
// TODO: make this a templated function with "return type" as type param -
// InherentImplItem is this specialisation of the template while TraitImplItem
// will be the other.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AssociatedItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method (
  AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // parse function or method qualifiers
  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();

  skip_token (FN_KW);

  // parse function or method name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  // parse generic params
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening "self"
  // param
  auto initial_param = parse_self_param ();

  if (!initial_param.has_value () && initial_param.error () != NOT_SELF)
    return nullptr;

  /* FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for a
   * function one idea is to lookahead up to 4 tokens to see whether self is
   * one of them */
  bool is_method = false;
  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    {
      if ((*initial_param)->is_self ())
	is_method = true;

      /* skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed in
       * same way */
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
	lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // parse trait function params
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> function_params
    = parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });

  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    function_params.insert (function_params.begin (),
			    std::move (*initial_param));

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse return type (optional)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

  // parse where clause (optional)
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  tl::optional<std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr>> body = tl::nullopt;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    lexer.skip_token ();
  else
    {
      auto result = parse_block_expr ();

      if (result == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "could not parse definition in inherent impl %s definition",
	    is_method ? "method" : "function");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
      body = std::move (result);
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
    new AST::Function (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
		       std::move (generic_params), std::move (function_params),
		       std::move (return_type), std::move (where_clause),
		       std::move (body), std::move (vis),
		       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a single trait impl item (item inside a trait impl block).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_impl_item ()
{
  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  auto visibility = AST::Visibility::create_private ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PUB)
    visibility = parse_visibility ();

  // branch on next token:
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      // these seem to be SimplePath tokens, so this is a macro invocation
      // semi
      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
    case IDENTIFIER:
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::DEFAULT)
	return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (visibility,
						    std::move (outer_attrs));
      else
	return parse_macro_invocation_semi (std::move (outer_attrs));
    case TYPE:
      return parse_type_alias (visibility, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case UNSAFE:
    case FN_KW:
      // function or method
      return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (visibility,
						  std::move (outer_attrs));
    case ASYNC:
      return parse_async_item (visibility, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case CONST:
      // lookahead to resolve production - could be function/method or const
      // item
      t = lexer.peek_token (1);

      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case IDENTIFIER:
	case UNDERSCORE:
	  return parse_const_item (visibility, std::move (outer_attrs));
	case UNSAFE:
	case EXTERN_KW:
	case FN_KW:
	  return parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (visibility,
						      std::move (outer_attrs));
	default:
	  add_error (Error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "unexpected token %qs in some sort of const item in trait impl",
	    t->get_token_description ()));

	  lexer.skip_token (1); // TODO: is this right thing to do?
	  return nullptr;
	}
      rust_unreachable ();
    default:
      break;
    }
  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
		    "unrecognised token %qs for item in trait impl",
		    t->get_token_description ()));

  // skip?
  return nullptr;
}

/* For internal use only by parse_trait_impl_item() - splits giant method into
 * smaller ones and prevents duplication of logic. Strictly, this parses a
 * function or method item inside a trait impl item block. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitImplItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_trait_impl_function_or_method (
  AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // this shares virtually all logic with
  // parse_inherent_impl_function_or_method
  // - template?
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  auto is_default = false;
  auto t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
      && t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::DEFAULT)
    {
      is_default = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // parse function or method qualifiers
  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();

  skip_token (FN_KW);

  // parse function or method name
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug (
    "about to start parsing generic params in trait impl function or method");

  // parse generic params
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug (
    "finished parsing generic params in trait impl function or method");

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // now for function vs method disambiguation - method has opening "self"
  // param
  auto initial_param = parse_self_param ();

  if (!initial_param.has_value () && initial_param.error () != NOT_SELF)
    return nullptr;

  // FIXME: ensure that self param doesn't accidently consume tokens for a
  // function
  bool is_method = false;
  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    {
      if ((*initial_param)->is_self ())
	is_method = true;

      // skip comma so function and method regular params can be parsed in
      // same way
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	}

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully parsed self param in method trait impl item");
    }

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug (
    "started to parse function params in function or method trait impl item");

  // parse trait function params (only if next token isn't right paren)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>> function_params;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      function_params
	= parse_function_params ([] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });

      if (function_params.empty ())
	{
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse function params in trait impl %s definition",
	    is_method ? "method" : "function");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_next_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  if (initial_param.has_value ())
    function_params.insert (function_params.begin (),
			    std::move (*initial_param));

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("successfully parsed function params in function or method "
	      "trait impl item");

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      skip_after_next_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse return type (optional)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug (
    "successfully parsed return type in function or method trait impl item");

  // parse where clause (optional)
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug (
    "successfully parsed where clause in function or method trait impl item");

  // parse function definition (in block) - semicolon not allowed
  tl::optional<std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr>> body = tl::nullopt;

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    lexer.skip_token ();
  else
    {
      auto result = parse_block_expr ();
      if (result == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse definition in trait impl %s definition",
		       is_method ? "method" : "function");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
      body = std::move (result);
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Function> (
    new AST::Function (std::move (ident), std::move (qualifiers),
		       std::move (generic_params), std::move (function_params),
		       std::move (return_type), std::move (where_clause),
		       std::move (body), std::move (vis),
		       std::move (outer_attrs), locus, is_default));
}

// Parses an extern block of declarations.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternBlock>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_extern_block (AST::Visibility vis,
						AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (EXTERN_KW);

  // detect optional abi name
  std::string abi;
  const_TokenPtr next_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (next_tok->get_id () == STRING_LITERAL)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      abi = next_tok->get_str ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse declarations inside extern block
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem>> extern_items;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem> extern_item = parse_external_item ();

      if (extern_item == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse external item despite not reaching "
		       "end of extern block");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      extern_items.push_back (std::move (extern_item));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      // skip somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  extern_items.shrink_to_fit ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternBlock> (
    new AST::ExternBlock (std::move (abi), std::move (extern_items),
			  std::move (vis), std::move (inner_attrs),
			  std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::NamedFunctionParam
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_named_function_param ()
{
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS) // Unnamed variadic
    {
      lexer.skip_token (); // Skip ellipsis
      return AST::NamedFunctionParam (std::move (outer_attrs), locus);
    }

  // parse identifier/_
  std::string name;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t name_location = t->get_locus ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      name = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case UNDERSCORE:
      name = "_";
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      // this is not a function param, but not necessarily an error
      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
    }

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS) // Named variadic
    {
      lexer.skip_token (); // Skip ellipsis
      return AST::NamedFunctionParam (std::move (name), std::move (outer_attrs),
				      locus);
    }

  // parse (required) type
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> param_type = parse_type ();
  if (param_type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"could not parse param type in extern block function declaration");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return AST::NamedFunctionParam::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::NamedFunctionParam (std::move (name), std::move (param_type),
				  std::move (outer_attrs), name_location);
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
template <typename EndTokenPred>
std::vector<AST::NamedFunctionParam>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_named_function_params (
  EndTokenPred is_end_token)
{
  std::vector<AST::NamedFunctionParam> params;
  if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
    return params;

  auto initial_param = parse_named_function_param ();
  if (initial_param.is_error ())
    return params;

  params.push_back (std::move (initial_param));
  auto t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      if (is_end_token (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ()))
	break;

      auto param = parse_named_function_param ();
      if (param.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse param in c function params");
	  add_error (error);
	  return std::vector<AST::NamedFunctionParam> ();
	}
      params.push_back (std::move (param));
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }
  params.shrink_to_fit ();
  return params;
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalFunctionItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_external_function_item (
  AST::Visibility vis, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // parse extern function declaration item
  // skip function token
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse identifier
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  // parse (optional) generic params
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::GenericParam>> generic_params
    = parse_generic_params_in_angles ();

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse parameters
  std::vector<AST::NamedFunctionParam> function_params
    = parse_named_function_params (
      [] (TokenId id) { return id == RIGHT_PAREN; });

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse (optional) return type
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

  // parse (optional) where clause
  AST::WhereClause where_clause = parse_where_clause ();

  if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  function_params.shrink_to_fit ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalFunctionItem> (
    new AST::ExternalFunctionItem (
      std::move (ident), std::move (generic_params), std::move (return_type),
      std::move (where_clause), std::move (function_params), std::move (vis),
      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a single extern block item (static or function declaration).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalItem>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_external_item ()
{
  // parse optional outer attributes
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // parse optional visibility
  AST::Visibility vis = parse_visibility ();

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      return parse_macro_invocation_semi (outer_attrs);
      case STATIC_KW: {
	// parse extern static item
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse mut (optional)
	bool has_mut = false;
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    has_mut = true;
	  }

	// parse identifier
	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
	  {
	    skip_after_semicolon ();
	    return nullptr;
	  }
	Identifier ident{ident_tok};

	if (!skip_token (COLON))
	  {
	    skip_after_semicolon ();
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// parse type (required)
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
	if (type == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse type in external static item");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    skip_after_semicolon ();
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExternalStaticItem> (
	  new AST::ExternalStaticItem (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
				       has_mut, std::move (vis),
				       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
      }
    case FN_KW:
      return parse_external_function_item (std::move (vis),
					   std::move (outer_attrs));
    case TYPE:
      return parse_external_type_item (std::move (vis),
				       std::move (outer_attrs));
    default:
      // error
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unrecognised token %qs in extern block item declaration",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a statement (will further disambiguate any statement).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_stmt (ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // quick exit for empty statement
  // FIXME: Can we have empty statements without semicolons? Just nothing?
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::EmptyStmt> (
	new AST::EmptyStmt (t->get_locus ()));
    }

  // parse outer attributes
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // parsing this will be annoying because of the many different possibilities
  /* best may be just to copy paste in parse_item switch, and failing that try
   * to parse outer attributes, and then pass them in to either a let
   * statement or (fallback) expression statement. */
  // FIXME: think of a way to do this without such a large switch?
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LET:
      // let statement
      return parse_let_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
    case PUB:
    case MOD:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case USE:
    case FN_KW:
    case TYPE:
    case STRUCT_KW:
    case ENUM_KW:
    case CONST:
    case STATIC_KW:
    case AUTO:
    case TRAIT:
    case IMPL:
    case MACRO:
    /* TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
     * context-dependence crappy hack way to parse a union written below to
     * separate it from the good code. */
    // case UNION:
    case UNSAFE: // maybe - unsafe traits are a thing
      /* if any of these (should be all possible VisItem prefixes), parse a
       * VisItem can't parse item because would require reparsing outer
       * attributes */
      // may also be unsafe block
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LEFT_CURLY)
	{
	  return parse_expr_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
	}
      else
	{
	  return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      break;
    // crappy hack to do union "keyword"
    case IDENTIFIER:
      if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::UNION
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
	{
	  return parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs));
	  // or should this go straight to parsing union?
	}
      else if (is_macro_rules_def (t))
	{
	  // macro_rules! macro item
	  return parse_macro_rules_def (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
      // TODO: find out how to disable gcc "implicit fallthrough" warning
    default:
      // fallback: expression statement
      return parse_expr_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
      break;
    }
}

// Parses a let statement.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_let_stmt (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					    ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (LET);

  // parse pattern (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
  if (pattern == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse pattern in let statement");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse type declaration (optional)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      // must have a type declaration
      lexer.skip_token ();

      type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type in let statement");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_semicolon ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  // parse expression to set variable to (optional)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EQUAL)
    {
      // must have an expression
      lexer.skip_token ();

      expr = parse_expr ();
      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse expression in let statement");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  skip_after_semicolon ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  if (restrictions.consume_semi)
    {
      // `stmt` macro variables are parsed without a semicolon, but should be
      // parsed as a full statement when interpolated. This should be handled
      // by having the interpolated statement be distinguishable from normal
      // tokens, e.g. by NT tokens.
      if (restrictions.allow_close_after_expr_stmt)
	maybe_skip_token (SEMICOLON);
      else if (!skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt> (
    new AST::LetStmt (std::move (pattern), std::move (expr), std::move (type),
		      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a type path.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::TypePath
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path ()
{
  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // create segment vector
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>> segments;

  // parse required initial segment
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> initial_segment
    = parse_type_path_segment ();
  if (initial_segment == nullptr)
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      // don't necessarily throw error but yeah
      return AST::TypePath::create_error ();
    }
  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));

  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> segment
	= parse_type_path_segment ();
      if (segment == nullptr)
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "could not parse type path segment");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::TypePath::create_error ();
	}

      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  segments.shrink_to_fit ();

  return AST::TypePath (std::move (segments), locus,
			has_opening_scope_resolution);
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::GenericArg
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_arg ()
{
  auto tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;

  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
      case IDENTIFIER: {
	// This is a bit of a weird situation: With an identifier token, we
	// could either have a valid type or a macro (FIXME: anything else?). So
	// we need one bit of lookahead to differentiate if this is really
	auto next_tok = lexer.peek_token (1);
	if (next_tok->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE
	    || next_tok->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
	    || next_tok->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	  {
	    auto type = parse_type ();
	    if (type)
	      return AST::GenericArg::create_type (std::move (type));
	    else
	      return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
	  }
	else if (next_tok->get_id () == COLON)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token (); // skip ident
	    lexer.skip_token (); // skip colon

	    auto tok = lexer.peek_token ();
	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds
	      = parse_type_param_bounds ();

	    auto type = std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	      new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), tok->get_locus (),
					false));
	    if (type)
	      return AST::GenericArg::create_type (std::move (type));
	    else
	      return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
	  }
	lexer.skip_token ();
	return AST::GenericArg::create_ambiguous (tok->get_str (),
						  tok->get_locus ());
      }
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      expr = parse_block_expr ();
      break;
    case MINUS:
    case STRING_LITERAL:
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
    case INT_LITERAL:
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
    case TRUE_LITERAL:
    case FALSE_LITERAL:
      expr = parse_literal_expr ();
      break;
      // FIXME: Because of this, error reporting is garbage for const generic
      // parameter's default values
      default: {
	auto type = parse_type ();
	// FIXME: Find a better way to do this?
	if (type)
	  return AST::GenericArg::create_type (std::move (type));
	else
	  return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();
      }
    }

  if (!expr)
    return AST::GenericArg::create_error ();

  return AST::GenericArg::create_const (std::move (expr));
}

// Parses the generic arguments in each path segment.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::GenericArgs
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_generic_args ()
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_SHIFT)
    lexer.split_current_token (LEFT_ANGLE, LEFT_ANGLE);

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::GenericArgs::create_empty ();
    }

  // We need to parse all lifetimes, then parse types and const generics in
  // any order.

  // try to parse lifetimes first
  std::vector<AST::Lifetime> lifetime_args;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t locus = t->get_locus ();
  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
    {
      AST::Lifetime lifetime = parse_lifetime (false);
      if (lifetime.is_error ())
	{
	  // not necessarily an error
	  break;
	}

      lifetime_args.push_back (std::move (lifetime));

      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  break;
	}
      // skip comma
      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // try to parse types and const generics second
  std::vector<AST::GenericArg> generic_args;

  // TODO: think of better control structure
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
    {
      // FIXME: Is it fine to break if there is one binding? Can't there be
      // bindings in between types?

      // ensure not binding being parsed as type accidently
      if (t->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EQUAL)
	break;

      auto arg = parse_generic_arg ();
      if (!arg.is_error ())
	{
	  generic_args.emplace_back (std::move (arg));
	}

      // FIXME: Do we need to break if we encounter an error?

      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip comma
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // try to parse bindings third
  std::vector<AST::GenericArgsBinding> binding_args;

  // TODO: think of better control structure
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (!is_right_angle_tok (t->get_id ()))
    {
      AST::GenericArgsBinding binding = parse_generic_args_binding ();
      if (binding.is_error ())
	{
	  // not necessarily an error
	  break;
	}

      binding_args.push_back (std::move (binding));

      // if next token isn't comma, then it must be end of list
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  break;
	}
      // skip comma
      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // skip any trailing commas
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    lexer.skip_token ();

  if (!skip_generics_right_angle ())
    return AST::GenericArgs::create_empty ();

  lifetime_args.shrink_to_fit ();
  generic_args.shrink_to_fit ();
  binding_args.shrink_to_fit ();

  return AST::GenericArgs (std::move (lifetime_args), std::move (generic_args),
			   std::move (binding_args), locus);
}

// Parses a binding in a generic args path segment.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::GenericArgsBinding
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_generic_args_binding ()
{
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (ident_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
    {
      // allow non error-inducing use
      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();
  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
    }

  // parse type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::GenericArgsBinding::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::GenericArgsBinding (std::move (ident), std::move (type),
				  ident_tok->get_locus ());
}

/* Parses a single type path segment (not including opening scope resolution,
 * but includes any internal ones). Includes generic args or type path
 * functions too. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path_segment ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // parse ident segment part
  AST::PathIdentSegment ident_segment = parse_path_ident_segment ();
  if (ident_segment.is_error ())
    {
      // not necessarily an error
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* lookahead to determine if variants exist - only consume scope resolution
   * then */
  bool has_separating_scope_resolution = false;
  const_TokenPtr next = lexer.peek_token (1);
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
      && (next->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE || next->get_id () == LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      has_separating_scope_resolution = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // branch into variants on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// parse generic args
	AST::GenericArgs generic_args = parse_path_generic_args ();

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegmentGeneric> (
	  new AST::TypePathSegmentGeneric (std::move (ident_segment),
					   has_separating_scope_resolution,
					   std::move (generic_args), locus));
      }
      case LEFT_PAREN: {
	// parse type path function
	AST::TypePathFunction type_path_function
	  = parse_type_path_function (locus);

	if (type_path_function.is_error ())
	  {
	    // skip after somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegmentFunction> (
	  new AST::TypePathSegmentFunction (std::move (ident_segment),
					    has_separating_scope_resolution,
					    std::move (type_path_function),
					    locus));
      }
    default:
      // neither of them
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> (
	new AST::TypePathSegment (std::move (ident_segment),
				  has_separating_scope_resolution, locus));
    }
  rust_unreachable ();
}

// Parses a function call representation inside a type path.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::TypePathFunction
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_path_function (location_t id_location)
{
  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
    }

  // parse function inputs
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>> inputs;

  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  /* this is an error as there should've been a ')' there if there
	   * wasn't a type */
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse type in parameters of type path function");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
	}

      inputs.push_back (std::move (type));

      // skip commas, including trailing commas
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::TypePathFunction::create_error ();
    }

  // parse optional return type
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> return_type = parse_function_return_type ();

  inputs.shrink_to_fit ();
  return AST::TypePathFunction (std::move (inputs), id_location,
				std::move (return_type));
}

// Parses a path inside an expression that allows generic arguments.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::PathInExpression
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_in_expression ()
{
  location_t locus = UNKNOWN_LOCATION;
  bool has_opening_scope_resolution = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      has_opening_scope_resolution = true;

      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // create segment vector
  std::vector<AST::PathExprSegment> segments;

  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
    }

  // parse required initial segment
  AST::PathExprSegment initial_segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
  if (initial_segment.is_error ())
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      // don't necessarily throw error but yeah
      return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
    }
  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));

  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
      AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
      if (segment.is_error ())
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse path expression segment");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
	}

      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  segments.shrink_to_fit ();

  return AST::PathInExpression (std::move (segments), {}, locus,
				has_opening_scope_resolution);
}

/* Parses a single path in expression path segment (including generic
 * arguments). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::PathExprSegment
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_expr_segment ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // parse ident segment
  AST::PathIdentSegment ident = parse_path_ident_segment ();
  if (ident.is_error ())
    {
      // not necessarily an error?
      return AST::PathExprSegment::create_error ();
    }

  // parse generic args (and turbofish), if they exist
  /* use lookahead to determine if they actually exist (don't want to
   * accidently parse over next ident segment) */
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
      && (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE
	  || lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LEFT_SHIFT))
    {
      // skip scope resolution
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // Let parse_path_generic_args split "<<" tokens
      AST::GenericArgs generic_args = parse_path_generic_args ();

      return AST::PathExprSegment (std::move (ident), locus,
				   std::move (generic_args));
    }

  // return a generic parameter-less expr segment if not found
  return AST::PathExprSegment (std::move (ident), locus);
}

/* Parses a fully qualified path in expression (i.e. a pattern). FIXME does
 * not parse outer attrs. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::QualifiedPathInExpression
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_in_expression (
  location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  /* Note: the Rust grammar is defined in such a way that it is impossible to
   * determine whether a prospective qualified path is a
   * QualifiedPathInExpression or QualifiedPathInType in all cases by the
   * rules themselves (the only possible difference is a TypePathSegment with
   * function, and lookahead to find this is too difficult). However, as this
   * is a pattern and QualifiedPathInType is a type, I believe it that their
   * construction will not be confused (due to rules regarding patterns vs
   * types).
   * As such, this function will not attempt to minimise errors created by
   * their confusion. */

  // parse the qualified path type (required)
  AST::QualifiedPathType qual_path_type
    = parse_qualified_path_type (pratt_parsed_loc);
  if (qual_path_type.is_error ())
    {
      // TODO: should this create a parse error?
      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
    }
  location_t locus = qual_path_type.get_locus ();

  // parse path segments
  std::vector<AST::PathExprSegment> segments;

  // parse initial required segment
  if (!expect_token (SCOPE_RESOLUTION))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?

      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
    }
  AST::PathExprSegment initial_segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
  if (initial_segment.is_error ())
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "required initial path expression segment in "
		   "qualified path in expression could not be parsed");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
    }
  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));

  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
      AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
      if (segment.is_error ())
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse path expression segment in qualified "
		       "path in expression");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression::create_error ();
	}

      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  segments.shrink_to_fit ();

  // FIXME: outer attr parsing
  return AST::QualifiedPathInExpression (std::move (qual_path_type),
					 std::move (segments), {}, locus);
}

// Parses the type syntactical construction at the start of a qualified path.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::QualifiedPathType
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_type (
  location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  /* TODO: should this actually be error? is there anywhere where this could
   * be valid? */
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LEFT_SHIFT)
	lexer.split_current_token (LEFT_ANGLE, LEFT_ANGLE);

      // skip after somewhere?
      if (!skip_token (LEFT_ANGLE))
	return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
    }

  // parse type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse type in qualified path type");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
    }

  // parse optional as clause
  AST::TypePath as_type_path = AST::TypePath::create_error ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == AS)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse type path, which is required now
      as_type_path = parse_type_path ();
      if (as_type_path.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "could not parse type path in as clause in qualified path type");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
	}
    }

  /* NOTE: should actually be a right-angle token, so
   * skip_generics_right_angle shouldn't be required */
  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_ANGLE))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return AST::QualifiedPathType::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::QualifiedPathType (std::move (type), locus,
				 std::move (as_type_path));
}

// Parses a fully qualified path in type (i.e. a type).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::QualifiedPathInType
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_qualified_path_in_type ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // parse the qualified path type (required)
  AST::QualifiedPathType qual_path_type = parse_qualified_path_type ();
  if (qual_path_type.is_error ())
    {
      // TODO: should this create a parse error?
      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
    }

  // parse initial required segment
  if (!expect_token (SCOPE_RESOLUTION))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?

      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
    }
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> initial_segment
    = parse_type_path_segment ();
  if (initial_segment == nullptr)
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "required initial type path segment in qualified path in "
		   "type could not be parsed");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
    }

  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment>> segments;
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePathSegment> segment
	= parse_type_path_segment ();
      if (segment == nullptr)
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  Error error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "could not parse type path segment in qualified path in type");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::QualifiedPathInType::create_error ();
	}

      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  segments.shrink_to_fit ();

  return AST::QualifiedPathInType (std::move (qual_path_type),
				   std::move (initial_segment),
				   std::move (segments), locus);
}

// Parses a self param. Also handles self param not existing.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
tl::expected<std::unique_ptr<AST::Param>, ParseSelfError>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_self_param ()
{
  bool has_reference = false;
  AST::Lifetime lifetime = AST::Lifetime::elided ();

  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // TODO: Feels off, find a better way to clearly express this
  std::vector<std::vector<TokenId>> ptrs
    = {{ASTERISK, SELF} /* *self */,
       {ASTERISK, CONST, SELF} /* *const self */,
       {ASTERISK, MUT, SELF} /* *mut self */};

  for (auto &s : ptrs)
    {
      size_t i = 0;
      for (i = 0; i < s.size (); i++)
	if (lexer.peek_token (i)->get_id () != s[i])
	  break;
      if (i == s.size ())
	{
	  rust_error_at (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "cannot pass %<self%> by raw pointer");
	  return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::SELF_PTR);
	}
    }

  // Trying to find those patterns:
  //
  // &'lifetime mut self
  // &'lifetime self
  // & mut self
  // & self
  // mut self
  // self
  //
  // If not found, it is probably a function, exit and let function parsing
  // handle it.
  bool is_self = false;
  for (size_t i = 0; i < 5; i++)
    if (lexer.peek_token (i)->get_id () == SELF)
      is_self = true;

  if (!is_self)
    return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::NOT_SELF);

  // test if self is a reference parameter
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == AMP)
    {
      has_reference = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // now test whether it has a lifetime
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
	{
	  lifetime = parse_lifetime (true);

	  // something went wrong somehow
	  if (lifetime.is_error ())
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse lifetime in self param");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      // skip after somewhere?
	      return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::PARSING);
	    }
	}
    }

  // test for mut
  bool has_mut = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
    {
      has_mut = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // skip self token
  const_TokenPtr self_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (self_tok->get_id () != SELF)
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::NOT_SELF);
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse optional type
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // type is now required
      type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse type in self param");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip after somewhere?
	  return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::PARSING);
	}
    }

  // ensure that cannot have both type and reference
  if (type != nullptr && has_reference)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"cannot have both a reference and a type specified in a self param");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return tl::make_unexpected (ParseSelfError::PARSING);
    }

  if (has_reference)
    {
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::SelfParam> (std::move (lifetime), has_mut,
						locus);
    }
  else
    {
      // note that type may be nullptr here and that's fine
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::SelfParam> (std::move (type), has_mut,
						locus);
    }
}

/* Parses an expression or macro statement. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_expr_stmt (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					     ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr;

  switch (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case CRATE:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      case SCOPE_RESOLUTION: {
	AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression ();
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> null_denotation;

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	  {
	    // Bind a reference to avoid -Wredundant-move on post-P1825R0
	    // compilers. Change to non-reference type and remove the moves
	    // below once C++20 is required to build gcc.
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> &&invoc
	      = parse_macro_invocation_partial (std::move (path),
						std::move (outer_attrs));

	    if (restrictions.consume_semi && maybe_skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	      {
		invoc->add_semicolon ();
		// Macro invocation with semicolon.
		return std::move (invoc);
	      }

	    TokenId after_macro = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ();

	    if (restrictions.allow_close_after_expr_stmt
		&& (after_macro == RIGHT_PAREN || after_macro == RIGHT_CURLY
		    || after_macro == RIGHT_SQUARE))
	      return std::move (invoc);

	    if (invoc->get_invoc_data ().get_delim_tok_tree ().get_delim_type ()
		  == AST::CURLY
		&& after_macro != DOT && after_macro != QUESTION_MARK)
	      {
		rust_debug ("braced macro statement");
		return std::move (invoc);
	      }

	    null_denotation = std::move (invoc);
	  }
	else
	  {
	    null_denotation
	      = null_denotation_path (std::move (path), {}, restrictions);
	  }

	expr = left_denotations (std::move (null_denotation), LBP_LOWEST,
				 std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
	break;
      }
    default:
      restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt = true;
      expr = parse_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
      break;
    }

  if (expr == nullptr)
    {
      // expr is required, error
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse expr in expr statement");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_semicolon ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  bool has_semi = false;

  if (restrictions.consume_semi)
    {
      if (maybe_skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	{
	  has_semi = true;
	}
      else if (expr->is_expr_without_block ())
	{
	  if (restrictions.allow_close_after_expr_stmt)
	    {
	      TokenId id = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ();
	      if (id != RIGHT_PAREN && id != RIGHT_CURLY && id != RIGHT_SQUARE)
		{
		  expect_token (SEMICOLON);
		  return nullptr;
		}
	    }
	  else
	    {
	      expect_token (SEMICOLON);
	      return nullptr;
	    }
	}
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmt> (
    new AST::ExprStmt (std::move (expr), locus, has_semi));
}

// Parses a block expression, including the curly braces at start and end.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_block_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      AST::LoopLabel label,
					      location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
	{
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse statements and expression
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt>> stmts;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      ExprOrStmt expr_or_stmt = parse_stmt_or_expr ();
      if (expr_or_stmt.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (
	    t->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse statement or expression in block expression");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      t = lexer.peek_token ();

      if (expr_or_stmt.stmt != nullptr)
	{
	  stmts.push_back (std::move (expr_or_stmt.stmt));
	}
      else
	{
	  // assign to expression and end parsing inside
	  expr = std::move (expr_or_stmt.expr);
	  break;
	}
    }

  location_t end_locus = t->get_locus ();

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "error may be from having an expression (as opposed to "
		   "statement) in the body of the function but not last");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      skip_after_end_block ();
      return nullptr;
    }

  // grammar allows for empty block expressions

  stmts.shrink_to_fit ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> (
    new AST::BlockExpr (std::move (stmts), std::move (expr),
			std::move (inner_attrs), std::move (outer_attrs),
			std::move (label), locus, end_locus));
}

/* Parses a "grouped" expression (expression in parentheses), used to control
 * precedence. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::GroupedExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_grouped_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (LEFT_PAREN);

  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse required expr inside parentheses
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr_in_parens = parse_expr ();
  if (expr_in_parens == nullptr)
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      // error?
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::GroupedExpr> (
    new AST::GroupedExpr (std::move (expr_in_parens), std::move (inner_attrs),
			  std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a closure expression (closure definition).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_closure_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // detect optional "move"
  bool has_move = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MOVE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      has_move = true;
    }

  // handle parameter list
  std::vector<AST::ClosureParam> params;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case OR:
      // skip token, no parameters
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case PIPE:
      // actually may have parameters
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();

      while (t->get_id () != PIPE)
	{
	  AST::ClosureParam param = parse_closure_param ();
	  if (param.is_error ())
	    {
	      // TODO is this really an error?
	      Error error (t->get_locus (), "could not parse closure param");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      break;
	    }
	  params.push_back (std::move (param));

	  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	    {
	      lexer.skip_token ();
	      // not an error but means param list is done
	      break;
	    }
	  // skip comma
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}
      params.shrink_to_fit ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs in closure expression - expected "
			"%<|%> or %<||%>",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // again branch based on next token
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == RETURN_TYPE)
    {
      // must be return type closure with block expr

      // skip "return type" token
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse actual type, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  // error
	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "failed to parse type for closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse block expr, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block = parse_block_expr ();
      if (block == nullptr)
	{
	  // error
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse block expr in closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExprInnerTyped> (
	new AST::ClosureExprInnerTyped (std::move (type), std::move (block),
					std::move (params), locus, has_move,
					std::move (outer_attrs)));
    }
  else
    {
      // must be expr-only closure

      // parse expr, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse expression in closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExprInner> (
	new AST::ClosureExprInner (std::move (expr), std::move (params), locus,
				   has_move, std::move (outer_attrs)));
    }
}

// Parses a literal token (to literal expression).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_literal_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // TODO: change if literal representation in lexer changes

  std::string literal_value;
  AST::Literal::LitType type = AST::Literal::STRING;

  // branch based on token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::CHAR;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case STRING_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::STRING;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::BYTE;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case BYTE_STRING_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::BYTE_STRING;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case INT_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::INT;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::FLOAT;
      literal_value = t->get_str ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    // case BOOL_LITERAL
    // use true and false keywords rather than "bool literal" Rust terminology
    case TRUE_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::BOOL;
      literal_value = Values::Keywords::TRUE_LITERAL;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case FALSE_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::BOOL;
      literal_value = Values::Keywords::FALSE_LITERAL;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      // error - cannot be a literal expr
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs when parsing literal expression",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // create literal based on stuff in switch
  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
    new AST::LiteralExpr (std::move (literal_value), std::move (type),
			  t->get_type_hint (), std::move (outer_attrs),
			  t->get_locus ()));
}

// Parses a return expression (including any expression to return).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ReturnExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_return_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					       location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (RETURN_KW);
    }

  // parse expression to return, if it exists
  ParseRestrictions restrictions;
  restrictions.expr_can_be_null = true;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> returned_expr
    = parse_expr (AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ReturnExpr> (
    new AST::ReturnExpr (std::move (returned_expr), std::move (outer_attrs),
			 locus));
}

/* Parses a break expression (including any label to break to AND any return
 * expression). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::BreakExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_break_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (BREAK);
    }

  // parse label (lifetime) if it exists - create dummy first
  AST::Lifetime label = AST::Lifetime::error ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
    {
      label = parse_lifetime (false);
    }

  // parse break return expression if it exists
  ParseRestrictions restrictions;
  restrictions.expr_can_be_null = true;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> return_expr
    = parse_expr (AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::BreakExpr> (
    new AST::BreakExpr (std::move (label), std::move (return_expr),
			std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a continue expression (including any label to continue from).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ContinueExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_continue_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
						 location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (CONTINUE);
    }

  // parse label (lifetime) if it exists - create dummy first
  AST::Lifetime label = AST::Lifetime::error ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
    {
      label = parse_lifetime (false);
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ContinueExpr> (
    new AST::ContinueExpr (std::move (label), std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a loop label used in loop expressions.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::LoopLabel
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_loop_label (const_TokenPtr tok)
{
  // parse lifetime - if doesn't exist, assume no label
  if (tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
    {
      // not necessarily an error
      return AST::LoopLabel::error ();
    }
  /* FIXME: check for named lifetime requirement here? or check in semantic
   * analysis phase? */
  AST::Lifetime label = lifetime_from_token (tok);

  if (!skip_token (COLON))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::LoopLabel::error ();
    }

  return AST::LoopLabel (std::move (label), tok->get_locus ());
}

/* Parses an if expression of any kind, including with else, else if, else if
 * let, and neither. Note that any outer attributes will be ignored because if
 * expressions don't support them. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_if_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					   location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  // TODO: make having outer attributes an error?
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      if (!skip_token (IF))
	{
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  // detect accidental if let
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LET)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "if let expression probably exists, but is being parsed "
		   "as an if expression. This may be a parser error");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* parse required condition expr - HACK to prevent struct expr from being
   * parsed */
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> condition = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (condition == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse condition expression in if expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse required block expr
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> if_body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (if_body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse if body block expression in if expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // branch to parse end or else (and then else, else if, or else if let)
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != ELSE)
    {
      // single selection - end of if expression
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExpr> (
	new AST::IfExpr (std::move (condition), std::move (if_body),
			 std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
  else
    {
      // double or multiple selection - branch on end, else if, or else if let

      // skip "else"
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // branch on whether next token is '{' or 'if'
      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
	    // double selection - else
	    // parse else block expr (required)
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> else_body = parse_block_expr ();
	    if (else_body == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse else body block expression in "
			     "if expression");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		// skip somewhere?
		return nullptr;
	      }

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExprConseqElse> (
	      new AST::IfExprConseqElse (std::move (condition),
					 std::move (if_body),
					 std::move (else_body),
					 std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	  }
	  case IF: {
	    // multiple selection - else if or else if let
	    // branch on whether next token is 'let' or not
	    if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LET)
	      {
		// parse if let expr (required)
		std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExpr> if_let_expr
		  = parse_if_let_expr ();
		if (if_let_expr == nullptr)
		  {
		    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
				 "failed to parse (else) if let expression "
				 "after if expression");
		    add_error (std::move (error));

		    // skip somewhere?
		    return nullptr;
		  }

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExprConseqElse> (
		  new AST::IfExprConseqElse (std::move (condition),
					     std::move (if_body),
					     std::move (if_let_expr),
					     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	      }
	    else
	      {
		// parse if expr (required)
		std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExpr> if_expr = parse_if_expr ();
		if (if_expr == nullptr)
		  {
		    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
				 "failed to parse (else) if expression after "
				 "if expression");
		    add_error (std::move (error));

		    // skip somewhere?
		    return nullptr;
		  }

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExprConseqElse> (
		  new AST::IfExprConseqElse (std::move (condition),
					     std::move (if_body),
					     std::move (if_expr),
					     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	      }
	  }
	default:
	  // error - invalid token
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "unexpected token %qs after else in if expression",
			    t->get_token_description ()));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
}

/* Parses an if let expression of any kind, including with else, else if, else
 * if let, and none. Note that any outer attributes will be ignored as if let
 * expressions don't support them. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_if_let_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					       location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  // TODO: make having outer attributes an error?
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      if (!skip_token (IF))
	{
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  // detect accidental if expr parsed as if let expr
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LET)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "if expression probably exists, but is being parsed as an "
		   "if let expression. This may be a parser error");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse match arm patterns (which are required)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> match_arm_patterns
    = parse_match_arm_patterns (EQUAL);
  if (match_arm_patterns.empty ())
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"failed to parse any match arm patterns in if let expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse expression (required) - HACK to prevent struct expr being parsed
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> scrutinee_expr = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (scrutinee_expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse scrutinee expression in if let expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  /* TODO: check for expression not being a struct expression or lazy boolean
   * expression here? or actually probably in semantic analysis. */

  // parse block expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> if_let_body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (if_let_body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"failed to parse if let body block expression in if let expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // branch to parse end or else (and then else, else if, or else if let)
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != ELSE)
    {
      // single selection - end of if let expression
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExpr> (
	new AST::IfLetExpr (std::move (match_arm_patterns),
			    std::move (scrutinee_expr), std::move (if_let_body),
			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
  else
    {
      // double or multiple selection - branch on end, else if, or else if let

      // skip "else"
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // branch on whether next token is '{' or 'if'
      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	  case LEFT_CURLY: {
	    // double selection - else
	    // parse else block expr (required)
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> else_body = parse_block_expr ();
	    if (else_body == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse else body block expression in "
			     "if let expression");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		// skip somewhere?
		return nullptr;
	      }

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExprConseqElse> (
	      new AST::IfLetExprConseqElse (std::move (match_arm_patterns),
					    std::move (scrutinee_expr),
					    std::move (if_let_body),
					    std::move (else_body),
					    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	  }
	  case IF: {
	    // multiple selection - else if or else if let
	    // branch on whether next token is 'let' or not
	    if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LET)
	      {
		// parse if let expr (required)
		std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExpr> if_let_expr
		  = parse_if_let_expr ();
		if (if_let_expr == nullptr)
		  {
		    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
				 "failed to parse (else) if let expression "
				 "after if let expression");
		    add_error (std::move (error));

		    // skip somewhere?
		    return nullptr;
		  }

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExprConseqElse> (
		  new AST::IfLetExprConseqElse (
		    std::move (match_arm_patterns), std::move (scrutinee_expr),
		    std::move (if_let_body), std::move (if_let_expr),
		    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	      }
	    else
	      {
		// parse if expr (required)
		std::unique_ptr<AST::IfExpr> if_expr = parse_if_expr ();
		if (if_expr == nullptr)
		  {
		    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
				 "failed to parse (else) if expression after "
				 "if let expression");
		    add_error (std::move (error));

		    // skip somewhere?
		    return nullptr;
		  }

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::IfLetExprConseqElse> (
		  new AST::IfLetExprConseqElse (
		    std::move (match_arm_patterns), std::move (scrutinee_expr),
		    std::move (if_let_body), std::move (if_expr),
		    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	      }
	  }
	default:
	  // error - invalid token
	  add_error (
	    Error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs after else in if let expression",
		   t->get_token_description ()));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
}

/* TODO: possibly decide on different method of handling label (i.e. not
 * parameter) */

/* Parses a "loop" infinite loop expression. Label is not parsed and should be
 * parsed via parse_labelled_loop_expr, which would call this. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LoopExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					     AST::LoopLabel label,
					     location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      if (label.is_error ())
	locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      else
	locus = label.get_locus ();

      if (!skip_token (LOOP))
	{
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
  else
    {
      if (!label.is_error ())
	locus = label.get_locus ();
    }

  // parse loop body, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> loop_body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (loop_body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "could not parse loop body in (infinite) loop expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LoopExpr> (
    new AST::LoopExpr (std::move (loop_body), locus, std::move (label),
		       std::move (outer_attrs)));
}

/* Parses a "while" loop expression. Label is not parsed and should be parsed
 * via parse_labelled_loop_expr, which would call this. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLoopExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_while_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
						   AST::LoopLabel label,
						   location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      if (label.is_error ())
	locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      else
	locus = label.get_locus ();

      if (!skip_token (WHILE))
	{
	  skip_after_end_block ();
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
  else
    {
      if (!label.is_error ())
	locus = label.get_locus ();
    }

  // ensure it isn't a while let loop
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LET)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "appears to be while let loop but is being parsed by "
		   "while loop - this may be a compiler issue");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse loop predicate (required) with HACK to prevent struct expr parsing
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> predicate = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (predicate == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse predicate expression in while loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  /* TODO: check that it isn't struct expression here? actually, probably in
   * semantic analysis */

  // parse loop body (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse loop body block expression in while loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLoopExpr> (
    new AST::WhileLoopExpr (std::move (predicate), std::move (body), locus,
			    std::move (label), std::move (outer_attrs)));
}

/* Parses a "while let" loop expression. Label is not parsed and should be
 * parsed via parse_labelled_loop_expr, which would call this. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLetLoopExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_while_let_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
						       AST::LoopLabel label)
{
  location_t locus = UNKNOWN_LOCATION;
  if (label.is_error ())
    locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  else
    locus = label.get_locus ();
  maybe_skip_token (WHILE);

  /* check for possible accidental recognition of a while loop as a while let
   * loop */
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != LET)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "appears to be a while loop but is being parsed by "
		   "while let loop - this may be a compiler issue");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere
      return nullptr;
    }
  // as this token is definitely let now, save the computation of comparison
  lexer.skip_token ();

  // parse predicate patterns
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> predicate_patterns
    = parse_match_arm_patterns (EQUAL);
  // TODO: have to ensure that there is at least 1 pattern?

  if (!skip_token (EQUAL))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* parse predicate expression, which is required (and HACK to prevent struct
   * expr) */
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> predicate_expr = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (predicate_expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse predicate expression in while let loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  /* TODO: ensure that struct expression is not parsed? Actually, probably in
   * semantic analysis. */

  // parse loop body, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse block expr (loop body) of while let loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::WhileLetLoopExpr> (new AST::WhileLetLoopExpr (
    std::move (predicate_patterns), std::move (predicate_expr),
    std::move (body), locus, std::move (label), std::move (outer_attrs)));
}

/* Parses a "for" iterative loop. Label is not parsed and should be parsed via
 * parse_labelled_loop_expr, which would call this. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ForLoopExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_for_loop_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
						 AST::LoopLabel label)
{
  location_t locus = UNKNOWN_LOCATION;
  if (label.is_error ())
    locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  else
    locus = label.get_locus ();
  maybe_skip_token (FOR);

  // parse pattern, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
  if (pattern == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse iterator pattern in for loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  if (!skip_token (IN))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  /* parse iterator expression, which is required - also HACK to prevent
   * struct expr */
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse iterator expression in for loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  // TODO: check to ensure this isn't struct expr? Or in semantic analysis.

  // parse loop body, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> body = parse_block_expr ();
  if (body == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse loop body block expression in for loop");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ForLoopExpr> (
    new AST::ForLoopExpr (std::move (pattern), std::move (expr),
			  std::move (body), locus, std::move (label),
			  std::move (outer_attrs)));
}

// Parses a loop expression with label (any kind of loop - disambiguates).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_labelled_loop_expr (const_TokenPtr tok,
						      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* TODO: decide whether it should not work if there is no label, or parse it
   * with no label at the moment, I will make it not work with no label
   * because that's the implication. */

  if (tok->get_id () != LIFETIME)
    {
      Error error (tok->get_locus (),
		   "expected lifetime in labelled loop expr (to parse loop "
		   "label) - found %qs",
		   tok->get_token_description ());
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse loop label (required)
  AST::LoopLabel label = parse_loop_label (tok);
  if (label.is_error ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse loop label in labelled loop expr");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // branch on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case LOOP:
      return parse_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), std::move (label));
    case FOR:
      return parse_for_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), std::move (label));
    case WHILE:
      // further disambiguate into while vs while let
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LET)
	{
	  return parse_while_let_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
					    std::move (label));
	}
      else
	{
	  return parse_while_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
					std::move (label));
	}
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      return parse_block_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), std::move (label));
    default:
      // error
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs when parsing labelled loop",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      // skip?
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a match expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MatchExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_match_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (MATCH_KW);
    }

  /* parse scrutinee expression, which is required (and HACK to prevent struct
   * expr) */
  ParseRestrictions no_struct_expr;
  no_struct_expr.can_be_struct_expr = false;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> scrutinee = parse_expr ({}, no_struct_expr);
  if (scrutinee == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse scrutinee expression in match expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  /* TODO: check for scrutinee expr not being struct expr? or do so in
   * semantic analysis */

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse inner attributes (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse match arms (if they exist)
  // std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::MatchCase> > match_arms;
  std::vector<AST::MatchCase> match_arms;

  // parse match cases
  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      // parse match arm itself, which is required
      AST::MatchArm arm = parse_match_arm ();
      if (arm.is_error ())
	{
	  // TODO is this worth throwing everything away?
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse match arm in match arms");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      if (!skip_token (MATCH_ARROW))
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  // TODO is returning here a good idea? or is break better?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      ParseRestrictions restrictions;
      restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt = true;

      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ({}, restrictions);

      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse expr in match arm in match expr");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      bool is_expr_without_block = expr->is_expr_without_block ();

      match_arms.push_back (AST::MatchCase (std::move (arm), std::move (expr)));

      // handle comma presence
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  if (!is_expr_without_block)
	    {
	      // allowed even if not final case
	      continue;
	    }
	  else if (is_expr_without_block
		   && lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
	    {
	      // not allowed if not final case
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "exprwithoutblock requires comma after match case "
			   "expression in match arm (if not final case)");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }
	  else
	    {
	      // otherwise, must be final case, so fine
	      break;
	    }
	}
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  match_arms.shrink_to_fit ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MatchExpr> (
    new AST::MatchExpr (std::move (scrutinee), std::move (match_arms),
			std::move (inner_attrs), std::move (outer_attrs),
			locus));
}

// Parses the "pattern" part of the match arm (the 'case x:' equivalent).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::MatchArm
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_match_arm ()
{
  // parse optional outer attributes
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("about to start parsing match arm patterns");

  // break early if find right curly
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      // not an error
      return AST::MatchArm::create_error ();
    }

  // parse match arm patterns - at least 1 is required
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> match_arm_patterns
    = parse_match_arm_patterns (RIGHT_CURLY);
  if (match_arm_patterns.empty ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse any patterns in match arm");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return AST::MatchArm::create_error ();
    }

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("successfully parsed match arm patterns");

  // parse match arm guard expr if it exists
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> guard_expr = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == IF)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      guard_expr = parse_expr ();
      if (guard_expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse guard expression in match arm");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return AST::MatchArm::create_error ();
	}
    }

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("successfully parsed match arm");

  return AST::MatchArm (std::move (match_arm_patterns),
			lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			std::move (guard_expr), std::move (outer_attrs));
}

/* Parses the patterns used in a match arm. End token id is the id of the
 * token that would exist after the patterns are done (e.g. '}' for match
 * expr, '=' for if let and while let). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_match_arm_patterns (TokenId end_token_id)
{
  // skip optional leading '|'
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PIPE)
    lexer.skip_token ();
  /* TODO: do I even need to store the result of this? can't be used.
   * If semantically different, I need a wrapped "match arm patterns" object
   * for this. */

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> patterns;

  // quick break out if end_token_id
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == end_token_id)
    return patterns;

  // parse required pattern - if doesn't exist, return empty
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> initial_pattern = parse_pattern ();
  if (initial_pattern == nullptr)
    {
      // FIXME: should this be an error?
      return patterns;
    }
  patterns.push_back (std::move (initial_pattern));

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("successfully parsed initial match arm pattern");

  // parse new patterns as long as next char is '|'
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == PIPE)
    {
      // skip pipe token
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // break if hit end token id
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == end_token_id)
	break;

      // parse pattern
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
      if (pattern == nullptr)
	{
	  // this is an error
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse pattern in match arm patterns");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return {};
	}

      patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  patterns.shrink_to_fit ();

  return patterns;
}

// Parses an async block expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AsyncBlockExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_async_block_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (ASYNC);

  // detect optional move token
  bool has_move = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MOVE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      has_move = true;
    }

  // parse block expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block_expr = parse_block_expr ();
  if (block_expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"failed to parse block expression of async block expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::AsyncBlockExpr> (
    new AST::AsyncBlockExpr (std::move (block_expr), has_move,
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses an unsafe block expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::UnsafeBlockExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_unsafe_block_expr (
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (UNSAFE);
    }

  // parse block expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block_expr = parse_block_expr ();
  if (block_expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (
	lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	"failed to parse block expression of unsafe block expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::UnsafeBlockExpr> (
    new AST::UnsafeBlockExpr (std::move (block_expr), std::move (outer_attrs),
			      locus));
}

// Parses an array definition expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_array_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (LEFT_SQUARE);
    }

  // parse optional inner attributes
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // parse the "array elements" section, which is optional
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_SQUARE)
    {
      // no array elements
      lexer.skip_token ();

      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> exprs;
      auto array_elems
	= Rust::make_unique<AST::ArrayElemsValues> (std::move (exprs), locus);
      return Rust::make_unique<AST::ArrayExpr> (std::move (array_elems),
						std::move (inner_attrs),
						std::move (outer_attrs), locus);
    }
  else
    {
      // should have array elements
      // parse initial expression, which is required for either
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> initial_expr = parse_expr ();
      if (initial_expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse expression in array expression "
		       "(even though arrayelems seems to be present)");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
	{
	  // copy array elems
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  // parse copy amount expression (required)
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> copy_amount = parse_expr ();
	  if (copy_amount == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "could not parse copy amount expression in array "
			   "expression (arrayelems)");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      // skip somewhere?
	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE);

	  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayElemsCopied> copied_array_elems (
	    new AST::ArrayElemsCopied (std::move (initial_expr),
				       std::move (copy_amount), locus));
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayExpr> (
	    new AST::ArrayExpr (std::move (copied_array_elems),
				std::move (inner_attrs),
				std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	}
      else if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_SQUARE)
	{
	  // single-element array expression
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> exprs;
	  exprs.reserve (1);
	  exprs.push_back (std::move (initial_expr));
	  exprs.shrink_to_fit ();

	  skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE);

	  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayElemsValues> array_elems (
	    new AST::ArrayElemsValues (std::move (exprs), locus));
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayExpr> (
	    new AST::ArrayExpr (std::move (array_elems),
				std::move (inner_attrs),
				std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	}
      else if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  // multi-element array expression (or trailing comma)
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> exprs;
	  exprs.push_back (std::move (initial_expr));

	  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	    {
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      // quick break if right square bracket
	      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_SQUARE)
		break;

	      // parse expression (required)
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
	      if (expr == nullptr)
		{
		  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			       "failed to parse element in array expression");
		  add_error (std::move (error));

		  // skip somewhere?
		  return nullptr;
		}
	      exprs.push_back (std::move (expr));

	      t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    }

	  skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE);

	  exprs.shrink_to_fit ();

	  std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayElemsValues> array_elems (
	    new AST::ArrayElemsValues (std::move (exprs), locus));
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayExpr> (
	    new AST::ArrayExpr (std::move (array_elems),
				std::move (inner_attrs),
				std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
	}
      else
	{
	  // error
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "unexpected token %qs in array expression (arrayelems)",
		       lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description ());
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}
    }
}

// Parses a single parameter used in a closure definition.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::ClosureParam
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_closure_param ()
{
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  // parse pattern (which is required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern_no_alt ();
  if (pattern == nullptr)
    {
      // not necessarily an error
      return AST::ClosureParam::create_error ();
    }

  // parse optional type of param
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse type, which is now required
      type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type in closure parameter");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return AST::ClosureParam::create_error ();
	}
    }

  location_t loc = pattern->get_locus ();
  return AST::ClosureParam (std::move (pattern), loc, std::move (type),
			    std::move (outer_attrs));
}

// Parses a grouped or tuple expression (disambiguates).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprWithoutBlock>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_grouped_or_tuple_expr (
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, location_t pratt_parsed_loc)
{
  // adjustment to allow Pratt parsing to reuse function without copy-paste
  location_t locus = pratt_parsed_loc;
  if (locus == UNKNOWN_LOCATION)
    {
      locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
      skip_token (LEFT_PAREN);
    }

  // parse optional inner attributes
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      // must be empty tuple
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // create tuple with empty tuple elems
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleExpr> (
	new AST::TupleExpr (std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> (),
			    std::move (inner_attrs), std::move (outer_attrs),
			    locus));
    }

  // parse first expression (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> first_expr = parse_expr ();
  if (first_expr == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse expression in grouped or tuple expression");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip after somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // detect whether grouped expression with right parentheses as next token
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      // must be grouped expr
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // create grouped expr
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::GroupedExpr> (
	new AST::GroupedExpr (std::move (first_expr), std::move (inner_attrs),
			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
  else if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      // tuple expr
      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> exprs;
      exprs.push_back (std::move (first_expr));

      // parse potential other tuple exprs
      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  // break out if right paren
	  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	    break;

	  // parse expr, which is now required
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
	  if (expr == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse expr in tuple expr");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      // skip somewhere?
	      return nullptr;
	    }
	  exprs.push_back (std::move (expr));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}

      // skip right paren
      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleExpr> (
	new AST::TupleExpr (std::move (exprs), std::move (inner_attrs),
			    std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
    }
  else
    {
      // error
      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      Error error (t->get_locus (),
		   "unexpected token %qs in grouped or tuple expression "
		   "(parenthesised expression) - expected %<)%> for grouped "
		   "expr and %<,%> for tuple expr",
		   t->get_token_description ());
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a type (will further disambiguate any type).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type (bool save_errors)
{
  /* rules for all types:
   * NeverType:               '!'
   * SliceType:               '[' Type ']'
   * InferredType:            '_'
   * MacroInvocation:         SimplePath '!' DelimTokenTree
   * ParenthesisedType:       '(' Type ')'
   * ImplTraitType:           'impl' TypeParamBounds
   *  TypeParamBounds (not type)  TypeParamBound ( '+' TypeParamBound )* '+'?
   *  TypeParamBound          Lifetime | TraitBound
   * ImplTraitTypeOneBound:   'impl' TraitBound
   * TraitObjectType:         'dyn'? TypeParamBounds
   * TraitObjectTypeOneBound: 'dyn'? TraitBound
   *  TraitBound              '?'? ForLifetimes? TypePath | '(' '?'?
   * ForLifetimes? TypePath ')' BareFunctionType:        ForLifetimes?
   * FunctionQualifiers 'fn' etc. ForLifetimes (not type) 'for' '<'
   * LifetimeParams '>' FunctionQualifiers      ( 'async' | 'const' )?
   * 'unsafe'?
   * ('extern' abi?)? QualifiedPathInType:     '<' Type ( 'as' TypePath )? '>'
   * (
   * '::' TypePathSegment )+ TypePath:                '::'? TypePathSegment (
   * '::' TypePathSegment)* ArrayType:               '[' Type ';' Expr ']'
   * ReferenceType:           '&' Lifetime? 'mut'? TypeNoBounds
   * RawPointerType:          '*' ( 'mut' | 'const' ) TypeNoBounds
   * TupleType:               '(' Type etc. - regular tuple stuff. Also
   * regular tuple vs parenthesised precedence
   *
   * Disambiguate between macro and type path via type path being parsed, and
   * then if '!' found, convert type path to simple path for macro. Usual
   * disambiguation for tuple vs parenthesised. For ImplTraitType and
   * TraitObjectType individual disambiguations, they seem more like "special
   * cases", so probably just try to parse the more general ImplTraitType or
   * TraitObjectType and return OneBound versions if they satisfy those
   * criteria. */

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case EXCLAM:
      // never type - can't be macro as no path beforehand
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::NeverType> (
	new AST::NeverType (t->get_locus ()));
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      // slice type or array type - requires further disambiguation
      return parse_slice_or_array_type ();
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// qualified path in type
	AST::QualifiedPathInType path = parse_qualified_path_in_type ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    if (save_errors)
	      {
		Error error (t->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse qualified path in type");
		add_error (std::move (error));
	      }

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::QualifiedPathInType> (
	  new AST::QualifiedPathInType (std::move (path)));
      }
    case UNDERSCORE:
      // inferred type
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::InferredType> (
	new AST::InferredType (t->get_locus ()));
    case ASTERISK:
      // raw pointer type
      return parse_raw_pointer_type ();
    case AMP: // does this also include AMP_AMP?
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      // reference type
      return parse_reference_type ();
      case LIFETIME: {
	/* probably a lifetime bound, so probably type param bounds in
	 * TraitObjectType */
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds
	  = parse_type_param_bounds ();

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	  new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), t->get_locus (),
				    false));
      }
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      case SCOPE_RESOLUTION: {
	// macro invocation or type path - requires further disambiguation.
	/* for parsing path component of each rule, perhaps parse it as a
	 * typepath and attempt conversion to simplepath if a trailing '!' is
	 * found */
	/* Type path also includes TraitObjectTypeOneBound BUT if it starts
	 * with it, it is exactly the same as a TypePath syntactically, so
	 * this is a syntactical ambiguity. As such, the parser will parse it
	 * as a TypePath. This, however, does not prevent TraitObjectType from
	 * starting with a typepath. */

	// parse path as type path
	AST::TypePath path = parse_type_path ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    if (save_errors)
	      {
		Error error (t->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse path as first component of type");
		add_error (std::move (error));
	      }

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	location_t locus = path.get_locus ();

	// branch on next token
	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	switch (t->get_id ())
	  {
	    case EXCLAM: {
	      // macro invocation
	      // convert to simple path
	      AST::SimplePath macro_path = path.as_simple_path ();
	      if (macro_path.is_empty ())
		{
		  if (save_errors)
		    {
		      Error error (t->get_locus (),
				   "failed to parse simple path in macro "
				   "invocation (for type)");
		      add_error (std::move (error));
		    }

		  return nullptr;
		}

	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      AST::DelimTokenTree tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();

	      return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (
		AST::MacroInvocData (std::move (macro_path),
				     std::move (tok_tree)),
		{}, locus);
	    }
	    case PLUS: {
	      // type param bounds
	      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;

	      // convert type path to trait bound
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> path_bound (
		new AST::TraitBound (std::move (path), locus, false, false));
	      bounds.push_back (std::move (path_bound));

	      /* parse rest of bounds - FIXME: better way to find when to stop
	       * parsing */
	      while (t->get_id () == PLUS)
		{
		  lexer.skip_token ();

		  // parse bound if it exists - if not, assume end of sequence
		  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound
		    = parse_type_param_bound ();
		  if (bound == nullptr)
		    {
		      break;
		    }
		  bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));

		  t = lexer.peek_token ();
		}

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
		new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), locus, false));
	    }
	  default:
	    // assume that this is a type path and not an error
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePath> (
	      new AST::TypePath (std::move (path)));
	  }
      }
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      /* tuple type or parenthesised type - requires further disambiguation
       * (the usual). ok apparently can be a parenthesised TraitBound too, so
       * could be TraitObjectTypeOneBound or TraitObjectType */
      return parse_paren_prefixed_type ();
    case FOR:
      // TraitObjectTypeOneBound or BareFunctionType
      return parse_for_prefixed_type ();
    case ASYNC:
    case CONST:
    case UNSAFE:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case FN_KW:
      // bare function type (with no for lifetimes)
      return parse_bare_function_type (std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> ());
    case IMPL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
	{
	  /* cannot be one bound because lifetime prevents it from being
	   * traitbound */
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds
	    = parse_type_param_bounds ();

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ImplTraitType> (
	    new AST::ImplTraitType (std::move (bounds), t->get_locus ()));
	}
      else
	{
	  // should be trait bound, so parse trait bound
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> initial_bound = parse_trait_bound ();
	  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
	    {
	      if (save_errors)
		{
		  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			       "failed to parse ImplTraitType initial bound");
		  add_error (std::move (error));
		}

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  location_t locus = t->get_locus ();

	  // short cut if next token isn't '+'
	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  if (t->get_id () != PLUS)
	    {
	      // convert trait bound to value object
	      AST::TraitBound value_bound (*initial_bound);

	      // DEBUG: removed as unique ptr, so should auto-delete
	      // delete initial_bound;

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ImplTraitTypeOneBound> (
		new AST::ImplTraitTypeOneBound (std::move (value_bound),
						locus));
	    }

	  // parse additional type param bounds
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;
	  bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));
	  while (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	    {
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      // parse bound if it exists
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound
		= parse_type_param_bound ();
	      if (bound == nullptr)
		{
		  // not an error as trailing plus may exist
		  break;
		}
	      bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));

	      t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    }

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ImplTraitType> (
	    new AST::ImplTraitType (std::move (bounds), locus));
	}
    case DYN:
      case QUESTION_MARK: {
	// either TraitObjectType or TraitObjectTypeOneBound
	bool has_dyn = false;
	if (t->get_id () == DYN)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    has_dyn = true;
	  }

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
	  {
	    /* cannot be one bound because lifetime prevents it from being
	     * traitbound */
	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds
	      = parse_type_param_bounds ();

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	      new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), t->get_locus (),
					has_dyn));
	  }
	else
	  {
	    // should be trait bound, so parse trait bound
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> initial_bound
	      = parse_trait_bound ();
	    if (initial_bound == nullptr)
	      {
		if (save_errors)
		  {
		    Error error (
		      lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		      "failed to parse TraitObjectType initial bound");
		    add_error (std::move (error));
		  }

		return nullptr;
	      }

	    // short cut if next token isn't '+'
	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    if (t->get_id () != PLUS)
	      {
		// convert trait bound to value object
		AST::TraitBound value_bound (*initial_bound);

		// DEBUG: removed as unique ptr, so should auto delete
		// delete initial_bound;

		return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound> (
		  new AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound (std::move (value_bound),
						    t->get_locus (), has_dyn));
	      }

	    // parse additional type param bounds
	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;
	    bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));
	    while (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	      {
		lexer.skip_token ();

		// parse bound if it exists
		std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound
		  = parse_type_param_bound ();
		if (bound == nullptr)
		  {
		    // not an error as trailing plus may exist
		    break;
		  }
		bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));

		t = lexer.peek_token ();
	      }

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	      new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), t->get_locus (),
					has_dyn));
	  }
      }
    default:
      if (save_errors)
	add_error (Error (t->get_locus (), "unrecognised token %qs in type",
			  t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Parses a type that has '(' as its first character. Returns a tuple type,
 * parenthesised type, TraitObjectTypeOneBound, or TraitObjectType depending
 * on following characters. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_paren_prefixed_type ()
{
  /* NOTE: Syntactical ambiguity of a parenthesised trait bound is considered
   * a trait bound, not a parenthesised type, so that it can still be used in
   * type param bounds. */

  /* NOTE: this implementation is really shit but I couldn't think of a better
   * one. It requires essentially breaking polymorphism and downcasting via
   * virtual method abuse, as it was copied from the rustc implementation (in
   * which types are reified due to tagged union), after a more OOP attempt by
   * me failed. */
  location_t left_delim_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // skip left delim
  lexer.skip_token ();
  /* while next token isn't close delim, parse comma-separated types, saving
   * whether trailing comma happens */
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  bool trailing_comma = true;
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>> types;

  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type inside parentheses (probably "
		       "tuple or parenthesised)");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      types.push_back (std::move (type));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
      if (t->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  trailing_comma = false;
	  break;
	}
      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // if only one type and no trailing comma, then not a tuple type
  if (types.size () == 1 && !trailing_comma)
    {
      // must be a TraitObjectType (with more than one bound)
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
	{
	  // create type param bounds vector
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;

	  // HACK: convert type to traitbound and add to bounds
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> released_ptr = std::move (types[0]);
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> converted_bound (
	    released_ptr->to_trait_bound (true));
	  if (converted_bound == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (
		lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		"failed to hackily converted parsed type to trait bound");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }
	  bounds.push_back (std::move (converted_bound));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  while (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	    {
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      // attempt to parse typeparambound
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound
		= parse_type_param_bound ();
	      if (bound == nullptr)
		{
		  // not an error if null
		  break;
		}
	      bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));

	      t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    }

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	    new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), left_delim_locus,
				      false));
	}
      else
	{
	  // release vector pointer
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> released_ptr = std::move (types[0]);
	  /* HACK: attempt to convert to trait bound. if fails, parenthesised
	   * type */
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> converted_bound (
	    released_ptr->to_trait_bound (true));
	  if (converted_bound == nullptr)
	    {
	      // parenthesised type
	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ParenthesisedType> (
		new AST::ParenthesisedType (std::move (released_ptr),
					    left_delim_locus));
	    }
	  else
	    {
	      // trait object type (one bound)

	      // get value semantics trait bound
	      AST::TraitBound value_bound (*converted_bound);

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound> (
		new AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound (value_bound,
						  left_delim_locus));
	    }
	}
    }
  else
    {
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleType> (
	new AST::TupleType (std::move (types), left_delim_locus));
    }
  /* TODO: ensure that this ensures that dynamic dispatch for traits is not
   * lost somehow */
}

/* Parses a type that has 'for' as its first character. This means it has a
 * "for lifetimes", so returns either a BareFunctionType, TraitObjectType, or
 * TraitObjectTypeOneBound depending on following characters. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_for_prefixed_type ()
{
  location_t for_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  // parse for lifetimes in type
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes = parse_for_lifetimes ();

  // branch on next token - either function or a trait type
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case ASYNC:
    case CONST:
    case UNSAFE:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case FN_KW:
      return parse_bare_function_type (std::move (for_lifetimes));
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
	// path, so trait type

	// parse type path to finish parsing trait bound
	AST::TypePath path = parse_type_path ();

	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	if (t->get_id () != PLUS)
	  {
	    // must be one-bound trait type
	    // create trait bound value object
	    AST::TraitBound bound (std::move (path), for_locus, false, false,
				   std::move (for_lifetimes));

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound> (
	      new AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound (std::move (bound), for_locus));
	  }

	/* more than one bound trait type (or at least parsed as it - could be
	 * trailing '+') create trait bound pointer and bounds */
	std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> initial_bound (
	  new AST::TraitBound (std::move (path), for_locus, false, false,
			       std::move (for_lifetimes)));
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound>> bounds;
	bounds.push_back (std::move (initial_bound));

	while (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // parse type param bound if it exists
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeParamBound> bound
	      = parse_type_param_bound ();
	    if (bound == nullptr)
	      {
		// not an error - e.g. trailing plus
		return nullptr;
	      }
	    bounds.push_back (std::move (bound));

	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectType> (
	  new AST::TraitObjectType (std::move (bounds), for_locus, false));
      }
    default:
      // error
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs in bare function type or trait "
			"object type or trait object type one bound",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a maybe named param used in bare function types.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::MaybeNamedParam
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_maybe_named_param (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* Basically guess that param is named if first token is identifier or
   * underscore and second token is semicolon. This should probably have no
   * exceptions. rustc uses backtracking to parse these, but at the time of
   * writing gccrs has no backtracking capabilities. */
  const_TokenPtr current = lexer.peek_token ();
  const_TokenPtr next = lexer.peek_token (1);

  Identifier name;
  AST::MaybeNamedParam::ParamKind kind = AST::MaybeNamedParam::UNNAMED;

  if (current->get_id () == IDENTIFIER && next->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      // named param
      name = {current};
      kind = AST::MaybeNamedParam::IDENTIFIER;
      lexer.skip_token (1);
    }
  else if (current->get_id () == UNDERSCORE && next->get_id () == COLON)
    {
      // wildcard param
      name = {Values::Keywords::UNDERSCORE, current->get_locus ()};
      kind = AST::MaybeNamedParam::WILDCARD;
      lexer.skip_token (1);
    }

  // parse type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse type in maybe named param");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return AST::MaybeNamedParam::create_error ();
    }

  return AST::MaybeNamedParam (std::move (name), kind, std::move (type),
			       std::move (outer_attrs), current->get_locus ());
}

/* Parses a bare function type (with the given for lifetimes for convenience -
 * does not parse them itself). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::BareFunctionType>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_bare_function_type (
  std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> for_lifetimes)
{
  // TODO: pass in for lifetime location as param
  location_t best_try_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  AST::FunctionQualifiers qualifiers = parse_function_qualifiers ();

  if (!skip_token (FN_KW))
    return nullptr;

  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    return nullptr;

  // parse function params, if they exist
  std::vector<AST::MaybeNamedParam> params;
  bool is_variadic = false;
  AST::AttrVec variadic_attrs;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      AST::AttrVec temp_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  is_variadic = true;
	  variadic_attrs = std::move (temp_attrs);

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();

	  if (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
	    {
	      Error error (t->get_locus (),
			   "expected right parentheses after variadic in maybe "
			   "named function "
			   "parameters, found %qs",
			   t->get_token_description ());
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  break;
	}

      AST::MaybeNamedParam param
	= parse_maybe_named_param (std::move (temp_attrs));
      if (param.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "failed to parse maybe named param in bare function type");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      params.push_back (std::move (param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    return nullptr;

  // bare function return type, if exists
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> return_type = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RETURN_TYPE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse required TypeNoBounds
      return_type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
      if (return_type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse return type (type no bounds) in bare "
		       "function type");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::BareFunctionType> (
    new AST::BareFunctionType (std::move (for_lifetimes),
			       std::move (qualifiers), std::move (params),
			       is_variadic, std::move (variadic_attrs),
			       std::move (return_type), best_try_locus));
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferenceType>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_reference_type_inner (location_t locus)
{
  // parse optional lifetime
  AST::Lifetime lifetime = AST::Lifetime::elided ();
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
    {
      lifetime = parse_lifetime (true);
      if (lifetime.is_error ())
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse lifetime in reference type");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  bool is_mut = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      is_mut = true;
    }

  // parse type no bounds, which is required
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse referenced type in reference type");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferenceType> (
    new AST::ReferenceType (is_mut, std::move (type), locus,
			    std::move (lifetime)));
}

// Parses a reference type (mutable or immutable, with given lifetime).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferenceType>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_reference_type ()
{
  auto t = lexer.peek_token ();
  auto locus = t->get_locus ();

  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case AMP:
      skip_token (AMP);
      return parse_reference_type_inner (locus);
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      skip_token (LOGICAL_AND);
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferenceType> (
	new AST::ReferenceType (false, parse_reference_type_inner (locus),
				locus));
    default:
      rust_unreachable ();
    }
}

// Parses a raw (unsafe) pointer type.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RawPointerType>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_raw_pointer_type ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (ASTERISK);

  AST::RawPointerType::PointerType kind = AST::RawPointerType::CONST;

  // branch on next token for pointer kind info
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case MUT:
      kind = AST::RawPointerType::MUT;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case CONST:
      kind = AST::RawPointerType::CONST;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs in raw pointer type",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse type no bounds (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse pointed type of raw pointer type");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::RawPointerType> (
    new AST::RawPointerType (kind, std::move (type), locus));
}

/* Parses a slice or array type, depending on following arguments (as
 * lookahead is not possible). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_slice_or_array_type ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (LEFT_SQUARE);

  // parse inner type (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> inner_type = parse_type ();
  if (inner_type == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse inner type in slice or array type");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  // branch on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case RIGHT_SQUARE:
      // slice type
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::SliceType> (
	new AST::SliceType (std::move (inner_type), locus));
      case SEMICOLON: {
	// array type
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse required array size expression
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> size = parse_expr ();
	if (size == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse size expression in array type");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayType> (
	  new AST::ArrayType (std::move (inner_type), std::move (size), locus));
      }
    default:
      // error
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unrecognised token %qs in slice or array type after inner type",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a type, taking into account type boundary disambiguation.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_no_bounds ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case EXCLAM:
      // never type - can't be macro as no path beforehand
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::NeverType> (
	new AST::NeverType (t->get_locus ()));
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      // slice type or array type - requires further disambiguation
      return parse_slice_or_array_type ();
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// qualified path in type
	AST::QualifiedPathInType path = parse_qualified_path_in_type ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    Error error (t->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse qualified path in type");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::QualifiedPathInType> (
	  new AST::QualifiedPathInType (std::move (path)));
      }
    case UNDERSCORE:
      // inferred type
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::InferredType> (
	new AST::InferredType (t->get_locus ()));
    case ASTERISK:
      // raw pointer type
      return parse_raw_pointer_type ();
    case AMP: // does this also include AMP_AMP? Yes! Which is... LOGICAL_AND?
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      // reference type
      return parse_reference_type ();
    case LIFETIME:
      /* probably a lifetime bound, so probably type param bounds in
       * TraitObjectType. this is not allowed, but detection here for error
       * message */
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"lifetime bounds (i.e. in type param bounds, in "
			"TraitObjectType) are not allowed as TypeNoBounds"));

      return nullptr;
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      case SCOPE_RESOLUTION: {
	// macro invocation or type path - requires further disambiguation.
	/* for parsing path component of each rule, perhaps parse it as a
	 * typepath and attempt conversion to simplepath if a trailing '!' is
	 * found */
	/* Type path also includes TraitObjectTypeOneBound BUT if it starts
	 * with it, it is exactly the same as a TypePath syntactically, so
	 * this is a syntactical ambiguity. As such, the parser will parse it
	 * as a TypePath. This, however, does not prevent TraitObjectType from
	 * starting with a typepath. */

	// parse path as type path
	AST::TypePath path = parse_type_path ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    Error error (
	      t->get_locus (),
	      "failed to parse path as first component of type no bounds");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	location_t locus = path.get_locus ();

	// branch on next token
	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	switch (t->get_id ())
	  {
	    case EXCLAM: {
	      // macro invocation
	      // convert to simple path
	      AST::SimplePath macro_path = path.as_simple_path ();
	      if (macro_path.is_empty ())
		{
		  Error error (t->get_locus (),
			       "failed to parse simple path in macro "
			       "invocation (for type)");
		  add_error (std::move (error));

		  return nullptr;
		}

	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      AST::DelimTokenTree tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();

	      return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (
		AST::MacroInvocData (std::move (macro_path),
				     std::move (tok_tree)),
		{}, locus);
	    }
	  default:
	    // assume that this is a type path and not an error
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypePath> (
	      new AST::TypePath (std::move (path)));
	  }
      }
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      /* tuple type or parenthesised type - requires further disambiguation
       * (the usual). ok apparently can be a parenthesised TraitBound too, so
       * could be TraitObjectTypeOneBound */
      return parse_paren_prefixed_type_no_bounds ();
    case FOR:
    case ASYNC:
    case CONST:
    case UNSAFE:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case FN_KW:
      // bare function type (with no for lifetimes)
      return parse_bare_function_type (std::vector<AST::LifetimeParam> ());
    case IMPL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
	{
	  /* cannot be one bound because lifetime prevents it from being
	   * traitbound not allowed as type no bounds, only here for error
	   * message */
	  Error error (
	    lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	    "lifetime (probably lifetime bound, in type param "
	    "bounds, in ImplTraitType) is not allowed in TypeNoBounds");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      else
	{
	  // should be trait bound, so parse trait bound
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> initial_bound = parse_trait_bound ();
	  if (initial_bound == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse ImplTraitTypeOneBound bound");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  location_t locus = t->get_locus ();

	  // ensure not a trait with multiple bounds
	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  if (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	    {
	      Error error (t->get_locus (),
			   "plus after trait bound means an ImplTraitType, "
			   "which is not allowed as a TypeNoBounds");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  // convert trait bound to value object
	  AST::TraitBound value_bound (*initial_bound);

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ImplTraitTypeOneBound> (
	    new AST::ImplTraitTypeOneBound (std::move (value_bound), locus));
	}
    case DYN:
      case QUESTION_MARK: {
	// either TraitObjectTypeOneBound
	bool has_dyn = false;
	if (t->get_id () == DYN)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    has_dyn = true;
	  }

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LIFETIME)
	  {
	    /* means that cannot be TraitObjectTypeOneBound - so here for
	     * error message */
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "lifetime as bound in TraitObjectTypeOneBound "
			 "is not allowed, so cannot be TypeNoBounds");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// should be trait bound, so parse trait bound
	std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> initial_bound = parse_trait_bound ();
	if (initial_bound == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (
	      lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
	      "failed to parse TraitObjectTypeOneBound initial bound");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	location_t locus = t->get_locus ();

	// detect error with plus as next token
	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	if (t->get_id () == PLUS)
	  {
	    Error error (t->get_locus (),
			 "plus after trait bound means a TraitObjectType, "
			 "which is not allowed as a TypeNoBounds");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// convert trait bound to value object
	AST::TraitBound value_bound (*initial_bound);

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound> (
	  new AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound (std::move (value_bound), locus,
					    has_dyn));
      }
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs in type no bounds",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a type no bounds beginning with '('.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_paren_prefixed_type_no_bounds ()
{
  /* NOTE: this could probably be parsed without the HACK solution of
   * parse_paren_prefixed_type, but I was lazy. So FIXME for future.*/

  /* NOTE: again, syntactical ambiguity of a parenthesised trait bound is
   * considered a trait bound, not a parenthesised type, so that it can still
   * be used in type param bounds. */

  location_t left_paren_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  // skip left delim
  lexer.skip_token ();
  /* while next token isn't close delim, parse comma-separated types, saving
   * whether trailing comma happens */
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  bool trailing_comma = true;
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Type>> types;

  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> type = parse_type ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse type inside parentheses (probably "
		       "tuple or parenthesised)");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      types.push_back (std::move (type));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
      if (t->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  trailing_comma = false;
	  break;
	}
      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // if only one type and no trailing comma, then not a tuple type
  if (types.size () == 1 && !trailing_comma)
    {
      // must be a TraitObjectType (with more than one bound)
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PLUS)
	{
	  // error - this is not allowed for type no bounds
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "plus (implying TraitObjectType as type param "
		       "bounds) is not allowed in type no bounds");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      else
	{
	  // release vector pointer
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Type> released_ptr = std::move (types[0]);
	  /* HACK: attempt to convert to trait bound. if fails, parenthesised
	   * type */
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitBound> converted_bound (
	    released_ptr->to_trait_bound (true));
	  if (converted_bound == nullptr)
	    {
	      // parenthesised type
	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ParenthesisedType> (
		new AST::ParenthesisedType (std::move (released_ptr),
					    left_paren_locus));
	    }
	  else
	    {
	      // trait object type (one bound)

	      // get value semantics trait bound
	      AST::TraitBound value_bound (*converted_bound);

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound> (
		new AST::TraitObjectTypeOneBound (value_bound,
						  left_paren_locus));
	    }
	}
    }
  else
    {
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleType> (
	new AST::TupleType (std::move (types), left_paren_locus));
    }
  /* TODO: ensure that this ensures that dynamic dispatch for traits is not
   * lost somehow */
}

/* Parses a literal pattern or range pattern. Assumes that literals passed in
 * are valid range pattern bounds. Do not pass in paths in expressions, for
 * instance. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_literal_or_range_pattern ()
{
  const_TokenPtr range_lower = lexer.peek_token ();
  AST::Literal::LitType type = AST::Literal::STRING;
  bool has_minus = false;

  // get lit type
  switch (range_lower->get_id ())
    {
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::CHAR;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::BYTE;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case INT_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::INT;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      type = AST::Literal::FLOAT;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case MINUS:
      // branch on next token
      range_lower = lexer.peek_token (1);
      switch (range_lower->get_id ())
	{
	case INT_LITERAL:
	  type = AST::Literal::INT;
	  has_minus = true;
	  lexer.skip_token (1);
	  break;
	case FLOAT_LITERAL:
	  type = AST::Literal::FLOAT;
	  has_minus = true;
	  lexer.skip_token (1);
	  break;
	default:
	  add_error (Error (range_lower->get_locus (),
			    "token type %qs cannot be parsed as range pattern "
			    "bound or literal after minus symbol",
			    range_lower->get_token_description ()));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      break;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (range_lower->get_locus (),
	       "token type %qs cannot be parsed as range pattern bound",
	       range_lower->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }

  const_TokenPtr next = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (next->get_id () == DOT_DOT_EQ || next->get_id () == ELLIPSIS)
    {
      // range pattern
      lexer.skip_token ();
      std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> lower (
	new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	  AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), type,
			PrimitiveCoreType::CORETYPE_UNKNOWN),
	  range_lower->get_locus (), has_minus));

      std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> upper
	= parse_range_pattern_bound ();
      if (upper == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (next->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse range pattern bound in range pattern");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePattern> (
	new AST::RangePattern (std::move (lower), std::move (upper),
			       range_lower->get_locus ()));
    }
  else
    {
      // literal pattern
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralPattern> (
	new AST::LiteralPattern (range_lower->get_str (), type,
				 range_lower->get_locus (),
				 range_lower->get_type_hint ()));
    }
}

// Parses a range pattern bound (value only).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_range_pattern_bound ()
{
  const_TokenPtr range_lower = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t range_lower_locus = range_lower->get_locus ();

  // get lit type
  switch (range_lower->get_id ())
    {
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	  AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::CHAR,
			range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	  range_lower_locus));
    case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	  AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::BYTE,
			range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	  range_lower_locus));
    case INT_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	  AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::INT,
			range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	  range_lower_locus));
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      rust_debug ("warning: used deprecated float range pattern bound");
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	  AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::FLOAT,
			range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	  range_lower_locus));
    case MINUS:
      // branch on next token
      range_lower = lexer.peek_token (1);
      switch (range_lower->get_id ())
	{
	case INT_LITERAL:
	  lexer.skip_token (1);
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	    new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	      AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::INT,
			    range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	      range_lower_locus, true));
	case FLOAT_LITERAL:
	  lexer.skip_token (1);
	  rust_debug ("warning: used deprecated float range pattern bound");
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral> (
	    new AST::RangePatternBoundLiteral (
	      AST::Literal (range_lower->get_str (), AST::Literal::FLOAT,
			    range_lower->get_type_hint ()),
	      range_lower_locus, true));
	default:
	  add_error (Error (range_lower->get_locus (),
			    "token type %qs cannot be parsed as range pattern "
			    "bound after minus symbol",
			    range_lower->get_token_description ()));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
	// path in expression
	AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    Error error (
	      range_lower->get_locus (),
	      "failed to parse path in expression range pattern bound");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundPath> (
	  new AST::RangePatternBoundPath (std::move (path)));
      }
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// qualified path in expression
	AST::QualifiedPathInExpression path
	  = parse_qualified_path_in_expression ();
	if (path.is_error ())
	  {
	    Error error (range_lower->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse qualified path in expression range "
			 "pattern bound");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundQualPath> (
	  new AST::RangePatternBoundQualPath (std::move (path)));
      }
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (range_lower->get_locus (),
	       "token type %qs cannot be parsed as range pattern bound",
	       range_lower->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_pattern ()
{
  location_t start_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  /* skip optional starting pipe */
  maybe_skip_token (PIPE);

  auto first = parse_pattern_no_alt ();

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != PIPE)
    /* no alternates */
    return first;

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> alts;
  alts.push_back (std::move (first));

  do
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      alts.push_back (parse_pattern_no_alt ());
    }
  while (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PIPE);

  /* alternates */
  return std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> (
    new AST::AltPattern (std::move (alts), start_locus));
}

// Parses a pattern without alternates ('|')
// (will further disambiguate any pattern).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_pattern_no_alt ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case TRUE_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralPattern> (
	new AST::LiteralPattern (Values::Keywords::TRUE_LITERAL,
				 AST::Literal::BOOL, t->get_locus (),
				 t->get_type_hint ()));
    case FALSE_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralPattern> (
	new AST::LiteralPattern (Values::Keywords::FALSE_LITERAL,
				 AST::Literal::BOOL, t->get_locus (),
				 t->get_type_hint ()));
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
    case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
    case INT_LITERAL:
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      return parse_literal_or_range_pattern ();
    case STRING_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralPattern> (
	new AST::LiteralPattern (t->get_str (), AST::Literal::STRING,
				 t->get_locus (), t->get_type_hint ()));
    case BYTE_STRING_LITERAL:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralPattern> (
	new AST::LiteralPattern (t->get_str (), AST::Literal::BYTE_STRING,
				 t->get_locus (), t->get_type_hint ()));
    // raw string and raw byte string literals too if they are readded to
    // lexer
    case MINUS:
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == INT_LITERAL)
	{
	  return parse_literal_or_range_pattern ();
	}
      else if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == FLOAT_LITERAL)
	{
	  return parse_literal_or_range_pattern ();
	}
      else
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "unexpected token %<-%> in pattern - "
					"did you forget an integer literal");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    case UNDERSCORE:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::WildcardPattern> (
	new AST::WildcardPattern (t->get_locus ()));
    case DOT_DOT:
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RestPattern> (
	new AST::RestPattern (t->get_locus ()));
    case REF:
    case MUT:
      return parse_identifier_pattern ();
    case IDENTIFIER:
      /* if identifier with no scope resolution afterwards, identifier
       * pattern. if scope resolution afterwards, path pattern (or range
       * pattern or struct pattern or tuple struct pattern) or macro
       * invocation */
      return parse_ident_leading_pattern ();
    case AMP:
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      // reference pattern
      return parse_reference_pattern ();
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      // tuple pattern or grouped pattern
      return parse_grouped_or_tuple_pattern ();
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      // slice pattern
      return parse_slice_pattern ();
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// qualified path in expression or qualified range pattern bound
	AST::QualifiedPathInExpression path
	  = parse_qualified_path_in_expression ();

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == DOT_DOT_EQ
	    || lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS)
	  {
	    // qualified range pattern bound, so parse rest of range pattern
	    bool has_ellipsis_syntax
	      = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS;
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundQualPath> lower_bound (
	      new AST::RangePatternBoundQualPath (std::move (path)));
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> upper_bound
	      = parse_range_pattern_bound ();

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePattern> (
	      new AST::RangePattern (std::move (lower_bound),
				     std::move (upper_bound), t->get_locus (),
				     has_ellipsis_syntax));
	  }
	else
	  {
	    // just qualified path in expression
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::QualifiedPathInExpression> (
	      new AST::QualifiedPathInExpression (std::move (path)));
	  }
      }
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
	// path in expression or range pattern bound
	AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression ();

	const_TokenPtr next = lexer.peek_token ();
	switch (next->get_id ())
	  {
	  case DOT_DOT_EQ:
	    case ELLIPSIS: {
	      // qualified range pattern bound, so parse rest of range pattern
	      bool has_ellipsis_syntax
		= lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS;
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundPath> lower_bound (
		new AST::RangePatternBoundPath (std::move (path)));
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> upper_bound
		= parse_range_pattern_bound ();

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePattern> (
		new AST::RangePattern (std::move (lower_bound),
				       std::move (upper_bound),
				       UNKNOWN_LOCATION, has_ellipsis_syntax));
	    }
	  case EXCLAM:
	    return parse_macro_invocation_partial (std::move (path),
						   AST::AttrVec ());
	    case LEFT_PAREN: {
	      // tuple struct
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      // check if empty tuple
	      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
		{
		  lexer.skip_token ();
		  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructPattern> (
		    new AST::TupleStructPattern (std::move (path), nullptr));
		}

	      // parse items
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItems> items
		= parse_tuple_struct_items ();
	      if (items == nullptr)
		{
		  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			       "failed to parse tuple struct items");
		  add_error (std::move (error));

		  return nullptr;
		}

	      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
		{
		  return nullptr;
		}

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructPattern> (
		new AST::TupleStructPattern (std::move (path),
					     std::move (items)));
	    }
	    case LEFT_CURLY: {
	      // struct
	      lexer.skip_token ();

	      // parse elements (optional)
	      AST::StructPatternElements elems = parse_struct_pattern_elems ();

	      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
		{
		  return nullptr;
		}

	      return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPattern> (
		new AST::StructPattern (std::move (path), t->get_locus (),
					std::move (elems)));
	    }
	  default:
	    // assume path in expression
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	      new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
	  }
      }
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (), "unexpected token %qs in pattern",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses a single or double reference pattern.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferencePattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_reference_pattern ()
{
  // parse double or single ref
  bool is_double_ref = false;
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case AMP:
      // still false
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      is_double_ref = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
      break;
    default:
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs in reference pattern",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse mut (if it exists)
  bool is_mut = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
    {
      is_mut = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // parse pattern to get reference of (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern_no_alt ();
  if (pattern == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse pattern in reference pattern");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ReferencePattern> (
    new AST::ReferencePattern (std::move (pattern), is_mut, is_double_ref,
			       t->get_locus ()));
}

/* Parses a grouped pattern or tuple pattern. Prefers grouped over tuple if
 * only a single element with no commas. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_grouped_or_tuple_pattern ()
{
  location_t paren_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  skip_token (LEFT_PAREN);

  // detect '..' token (ranged with no lower range)
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == DOT_DOT)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse new patterns while next token is a comma
      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> patterns;

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  // break if next token is ')'
	  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	    {
	      break;
	    }

	  // parse pattern, which is required
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	  if (pattern == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (
		lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		"failed to parse pattern inside ranged tuple pattern");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      // skip somewhere?
	      return nullptr;
	    }
	  patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}

      if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	{
	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // create ranged tuple pattern items with only upper items
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePatternItemsRanged> items (
	new AST::TuplePatternItemsRanged (
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> (), std::move (patterns)));
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePattern> (
	new AST::TuplePattern (std::move (items), paren_locus));
    }
  else if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN);
      auto items = std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePatternItemsMultiple> (
	new AST::TuplePatternItemsMultiple (
	  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> ()));
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePattern> (
	new AST::TuplePattern (std::move (items), paren_locus));
    }

  // parse initial pattern (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> initial_pattern = parse_pattern ();
  if (initial_pattern == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse pattern in grouped or tuple pattern");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  // branch on whether next token is a comma or not
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case RIGHT_PAREN:
      // grouped pattern
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::GroupedPattern> (
	new AST::GroupedPattern (std::move (initial_pattern), paren_locus));
      case COMMA: {
	// tuple pattern
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// create vector of patterns
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> patterns;
	patterns.push_back (std::move (initial_pattern));

	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN && t->get_id () != DOT_DOT)
	  {
	    // parse pattern (required)
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	    if (pattern == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (t->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse pattern in tuple pattern");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }
	    patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	      break;

	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	if (t->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	  {
	    // non-ranged tuple pattern
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePatternItemsMultiple> items (
	      new AST::TuplePatternItemsMultiple (std::move (patterns)));
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePattern> (
	      new AST::TuplePattern (std::move (items), paren_locus));
	  }
	else if (t->get_id () == DOT_DOT)
	  {
	    // ranged tuple pattern
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // parse upper patterns
	    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> upper_patterns;
	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	    while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	      {
		lexer.skip_token ();

		// break if end
		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
		  break;

		// parse pattern (required)
		std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
		if (pattern == nullptr)
		  {
		    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
				 "failed to parse pattern in tuple pattern");
		    add_error (std::move (error));

		    return nullptr;
		  }
		upper_patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

		t = lexer.peek_token ();
	      }

	    if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	      {
		return nullptr;
	      }

	    std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePatternItemsRanged> items (
	      new AST::TuplePatternItemsRanged (std::move (patterns),
						std::move (upper_patterns)));
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TuplePattern> (
	      new AST::TuplePattern (std::move (items), paren_locus));
	  }
	else
	  {
	    // some kind of error
	    Error error (t->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse tuple pattern (probably) or maybe "
			 "grouped pattern");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }
      }
    default:
      // error
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs in grouped or tuple pattern "
			"after first pattern",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Parses a slice pattern that can match arrays or slices. Parses the square
 * brackets too. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::SlicePattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_slice_pattern ()
{
  location_t square_locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> patterns;
  skip_token (LEFT_SQUARE);

  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_SQUARE)
    {
      skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE);
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::SlicePattern> (
	new AST::SlicePattern (std::move (patterns), square_locus));
    }

  // parse initial pattern (required)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> initial_pattern = parse_pattern ();
  if (initial_pattern == nullptr)
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse initial pattern in slice pattern");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  patterns.push_back (std::move (initial_pattern));

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // break if end bracket
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_SQUARE)
	break;

      // parse pattern (required)
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
      if (pattern == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse pattern in slice pattern");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::SlicePattern> (
    new AST::SlicePattern (std::move (patterns), square_locus));
}

/* Parses an identifier pattern (pattern that binds a value matched to a
 * variable). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierPattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_identifier_pattern ()
{
  location_t locus = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();

  bool has_ref = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == REF)
    {
      has_ref = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("parsed ref in identifier pattern");
    }

  bool has_mut = false;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
    {
      has_mut = true;
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }

  // parse identifier (required)
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }
  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("parsed identifier in identifier pattern");

  // parse optional pattern binding thing
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> bind_pattern = nullptr;
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == PATTERN_BIND)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse required pattern to bind
      bind_pattern = parse_pattern ();
      if (bind_pattern == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse pattern to bind in identifier pattern");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    }

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("about to return identifier pattern");

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierPattern> (
    new AST::IdentifierPattern (std::move (ident), locus, has_ref, has_mut,
				std::move (bind_pattern)));
}

/* Parses a pattern that opens with an identifier. This includes identifier
 * patterns, path patterns (and derivatives such as struct patterns, tuple
 * struct patterns, and macro invocations), and ranges. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_ident_leading_pattern ()
{
  // ensure first token is actually identifier
  const_TokenPtr initial_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (initial_tok->get_id () != IDENTIFIER)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // save initial identifier as it may be useful (but don't skip)
  std::string initial_ident = initial_tok->get_str ();

  // parse next tokens as a PathInExpression
  AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression ();

  // branch on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case EXCLAM:
      return parse_macro_invocation_partial (std::move (path), AST::AttrVec ());
      case LEFT_PAREN: {
	// tuple struct
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("parsing tuple struct pattern");

	// check if empty tuple
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructPattern> (
	      new AST::TupleStructPattern (std::move (path), nullptr));
	  }

	// parse items
	std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItems> items
	  = parse_tuple_struct_items ();
	if (items == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse tuple struct items");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("successfully parsed tuple struct items");

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("successfully parsed tuple struct pattern");

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructPattern> (
	  new AST::TupleStructPattern (std::move (path), std::move (items)));
      }
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	// struct
	lexer.skip_token ();

	// parse elements (optional)
	AST::StructPatternElements elems = parse_struct_pattern_elems ();

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("successfully parsed struct pattern");

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPattern> (
	  new AST::StructPattern (std::move (path), initial_tok->get_locus (),
				  std::move (elems)));
      }
    case DOT_DOT_EQ:
      case ELLIPSIS: {
	// range
	bool has_ellipsis_syntax = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == ELLIPSIS;

	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBoundPath> lower_bound (
	  new AST::RangePatternBoundPath (std::move (path)));
	std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePatternBound> upper_bound
	  = parse_range_pattern_bound ();

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangePattern> (
	  new AST::RangePattern (std::move (lower_bound),
				 std::move (upper_bound), UNKNOWN_LOCATION,
				 has_ellipsis_syntax));
      }
      case PATTERN_BIND: {
	// only allow on single-segment paths
	if (path.is_single_segment ())
	  {
	    // identifier with pattern bind
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> bind_pattern = parse_pattern ();
	    if (bind_pattern == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (
		  t->get_locus (),
		  "failed to parse pattern to bind to identifier pattern");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierPattern> (
	      new AST::IdentifierPattern (std::move (initial_ident),
					  initial_tok->get_locus (), false,
					  false, std::move (bind_pattern)));
	  }
	Error error (
	  t->get_locus (),
	  "failed to parse pattern bind to a path, not an identifier");
	add_error (std::move (error));

	return nullptr;
      }
    default:
      // assume identifier if single segment
      if (path.is_single_segment ())
	{
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierPattern> (
	    new AST::IdentifierPattern (std::move (initial_ident),
					initial_tok->get_locus ()));
	}
      // return path otherwise
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
    }
}

// Parses tuple struct items if they exist. Does not parse parentheses.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItems>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_struct_items ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> lower_patterns;

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("started parsing tuple struct items");

  // check for '..' at front
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == DOT_DOT)
    {
      // only parse upper patterns
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("'..' at front in tuple struct items detected");

      std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> upper_patterns;

      const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
      while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  // break if right paren
	  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	    break;

	  // parse pattern, which is now required
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	  if (pattern == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse pattern in tuple struct items");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }
	  upper_patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

	  t = lexer.peek_token ();
	}

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug (
	"finished parsing tuple struct items ranged (upper/none only)");

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItemsRange> (
	new AST::TupleStructItemsRange (std::move (lower_patterns),
					std::move (upper_patterns)));
    }

  // has at least some lower patterns
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN && t->get_id () != DOT_DOT)
    {
      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("about to parse pattern in tuple struct items");

      // parse pattern, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
      if (pattern == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse pattern in tuple struct items");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      lower_patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("successfully parsed pattern in tuple struct items");

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	{
	  // DEBUG
	  rust_debug ("broke out of parsing patterns in tuple struct "
		      "items as no comma");

	  break;
	}
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // branch on next token
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case RIGHT_PAREN:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItemsNoRange> (
	new AST::TupleStructItemsNoRange (std::move (lower_patterns)));
      case DOT_DOT: {
	// has an upper range that must be parsed separately
	lexer.skip_token ();

	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern>> upper_patterns;

	t = lexer.peek_token ();
	while (t->get_id () == COMMA)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // break if next token is right paren
	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == RIGHT_PAREN)
	      break;

	    // parse pattern, which is required
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	    if (pattern == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse pattern in tuple struct items");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }
	    upper_patterns.push_back (std::move (pattern));

	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleStructItemsRange> (
	  new AST::TupleStructItemsRange (std::move (lower_patterns),
					  std::move (upper_patterns)));
      }
    default:
      // error
      add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs in tuple struct items",
			t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// Parses struct pattern elements if they exist.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::StructPatternElements
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_pattern_elems ()
{
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField>> fields;

  AST::AttrVec etc_attrs;
  bool has_etc = false;

  // try parsing struct pattern fields
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

      // parse etc (must be last in struct pattern, so breaks)
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == DOT_DOT)
	{
	  lexer.skip_token ();
	  etc_attrs = std::move (outer_attrs);
	  has_etc = true;
	  break;
	}

      std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField> field
	= parse_struct_pattern_field_partial (std::move (outer_attrs));
      if (field == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse struct pattern field");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip after somewhere?
	  return AST::StructPatternElements::create_empty ();
	}
      fields.push_back (std::move (field));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      // skip comma
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (has_etc)
    return AST::StructPatternElements (std::move (fields),
				       std::move (etc_attrs));
  else
    return AST::StructPatternElements (std::move (fields));
}

/* Parses a struct pattern field (tuple index/pattern, identifier/pattern, or
 * identifier). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_pattern_field ()
{
  // parse outer attributes (if they exist)
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();

  return parse_struct_pattern_field_partial (std::move (outer_attrs));
}

/* Parses a struct pattern field (tuple index/pattern, identifier/pattern, or
 * identifier), with outer attributes passed in. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_pattern_field_partial (
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // branch based on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
      case INT_LITERAL: {
	// tuple index
	std::string index_str = t->get_str ();
	int index = atoi (index_str.c_str ());

	lexer.skip_token ();

	if (!skip_token (COLON))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// parse required pattern
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	if (pattern == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (
	      t->get_locus (),
	      "failed to parse pattern in tuple index struct pattern field");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternFieldTuplePat> (
	  new AST::StructPatternFieldTuplePat (index, std::move (pattern),
					       std::move (outer_attrs),
					       t->get_locus ()));
      }
    case IDENTIFIER:
      // identifier-pattern OR only identifier
      // branch on next token
      switch (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id ())
	{
	  case COLON: {
	    // identifier-pattern
	    Identifier ident{t};
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    skip_token (COLON);

	    // parse required pattern
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Pattern> pattern = parse_pattern ();
	    if (pattern == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (t->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse pattern in struct pattern field");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternFieldIdentPat> (
	      new AST::StructPatternFieldIdentPat (std::move (ident),
						   std::move (pattern),
						   std::move (outer_attrs),
						   t->get_locus ()));
	  }
	case COMMA:
	  case RIGHT_CURLY: {
	    // identifier only
	    Identifier ident = {t};
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternFieldIdent> (
	      new AST::StructPatternFieldIdent (std::move (ident), false, false,
						std::move (outer_attrs),
						t->get_locus ()));
	  }
	default:
	  // error
	  add_error (Error (t->get_locus (),
			    "unrecognised token %qs in struct pattern field",
			    t->get_token_description ()));

	  return nullptr;
	}
    case REF:
      case MUT: {
	// only identifier
	bool has_ref = false;
	if (t->get_id () == REF)
	  {
	    has_ref = true;
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	  }

	bool has_mut = false;
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
	  {
	    has_mut = true;
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	  }

	const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
	if (ident_tok == nullptr)
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }
	Identifier ident{ident_tok};

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructPatternFieldIdent> (
	  new AST::StructPatternFieldIdent (std::move (ident), has_ref, has_mut,
					    std::move (outer_attrs),
					    t->get_locus ()));
      }
    default:
      // not necessarily an error
      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Parses a statement or expression (depending on whether a trailing semicolon
 * exists). Useful for block expressions where it cannot be determined through
 * lookahead whether it is a statement or expression to be parsed. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
ExprOrStmt
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_stmt_or_expr ()
{
  // quick exit for empty statement
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      std::unique_ptr<AST::EmptyStmt> stmt (
	new AST::EmptyStmt (t->get_locus ()));
      return ExprOrStmt (std::move (stmt));
    }

  // parse outer attributes
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs = parse_outer_attributes ();
  ParseRestrictions restrictions;
  restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt = true;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr;

  // parsing this will be annoying because of the many different possibilities
  /* best may be just to copy paste in parse_item switch, and failing that try
   * to parse outer attributes, and then pass them in to either a let
   * statement or (fallback) expression statement. */
  // FIXME: think of a way to do this without such a large switch?

  /* FIXME: for expressions at least, the only way that they can really be
   * parsed properly in this way is if they don't support operators on them.
   * They must be pratt-parsed otherwise. As such due to composability, only
   * explicit statements will have special cases here. This should roughly
   * correspond to "expr-with-block", but this warning is here in case it
   * isn't the case. */
  t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
      case LET: {
	// let statement
	std::unique_ptr<AST::LetStmt> stmt (
	  parse_let_stmt (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	return ExprOrStmt (std::move (stmt));
      }
    case PUB:
    case MOD:
    case EXTERN_KW:
    case USE:
    case FN_KW:
    case TYPE:
    case STRUCT_KW:
    case ENUM_KW:
    case CONST:
    case STATIC_KW:
    case AUTO:
    case TRAIT:
      case IMPL: {
	std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> item (
	  parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
      }
      /* TODO: implement union keyword but not really because of
       * context-dependence crappy hack way to parse a union written below to
       * separate it from the good code. */
      // case UNION:
      case UNSAFE: { // maybe - unsafe traits are a thing
	/* if any of these (should be all possible VisItem prefixes), parse a
	 * VisItem - can't parse item because would require reparsing outer
	 * attributes */
	const_TokenPtr t2 = lexer.peek_token (1);
	switch (t2->get_id ())
	  {
	    case LEFT_CURLY: {
	      // unsafe block: parse as expression
	      expr = parse_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
	      break;
	    }
	  case AUTO:
	    case TRAIT: {
	      // unsafe trait
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> item (
		parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	      return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
	    }
	  case EXTERN_KW:
	    case FN_KW: {
	      // unsafe function
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> item (
		parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	      return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
	    }
	    case IMPL: {
	      // unsafe trait impl
	      std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> item (
		parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	      return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
	    }
	  default:
	    add_error (Error (t2->get_locus (),
			      "unrecognised token %qs after parsing unsafe - "
			      "expected beginning of expression or statement",
			      t->get_token_description ()));

	    // skip somewhere?
	    return ExprOrStmt::create_error ();
	  }
	break;
      }
      /* FIXME: this is either a macro invocation or macro invocation semi.
       * start parsing to determine which one it is. */
      // FIXME: old code there

    // crappy hack to do union "keyword"
    case IDENTIFIER:
      if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::UNION
	  && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER)
	{
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::VisItem> item (
	    parse_vis_item (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	  return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
	  // or should this go straight to parsing union?
	}
      else if (t->get_str () == Values::WeakKeywords::MACRO_RULES
	       && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	{
	  // macro_rules! macro item
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Item> item (
	    parse_macro_rules_def (std::move (outer_attrs)));
	  return ExprOrStmt (std::move (item));
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    case SUPER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case CRATE:
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      case DOLLAR_SIGN: {
	AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression ();
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> null_denotation;

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == EXCLAM)
	  {
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation> invoc
	      = parse_macro_invocation_partial (std::move (path),
						std::move (outer_attrs));

	    if (restrictions.consume_semi && maybe_skip_token (SEMICOLON))
	      {
		invoc->add_semicolon ();
		// Macro invocation with semicolon.
		return ExprOrStmt (
		  std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt> (std::move (invoc)));
	      }

	    TokenId after_macro = lexer.peek_token ()->get_id ();

	    if (invoc->get_invoc_data ().get_delim_tok_tree ().get_delim_type ()
		  == AST::CURLY
		&& after_macro != DOT && after_macro != QUESTION_MARK)
	      {
		rust_debug ("braced macro statement");
		return ExprOrStmt (
		  std::unique_ptr<AST::Stmt> (std::move (invoc)));
	      }

	    null_denotation = std::move (invoc);
	  }
	else
	  {
	    null_denotation
	      = null_denotation_path (std::move (path), {}, restrictions);
	  }

	expr = left_denotations (std::move (null_denotation), LBP_LOWEST,
				 std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
	break;
      }
    default:
      /* expression statement or expression itself - parse
       * expression then make it statement if semi afterwards */
      expr = parse_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
      break;
    }

  const_TokenPtr after_expr = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (after_expr->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    {
      // must be expression statement
      lexer.skip_token ();

      if (expr)
	{
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmt> stmt (
	    new AST::ExprStmt (std::move (expr), t->get_locus (), true));
	  return ExprOrStmt (std::move (stmt));
	}
      else
	{
	  return ExprOrStmt::create_error ();
	}
    }

  if (expr && !expr->is_expr_without_block ()
      && after_expr->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      // block expression statement.
      std::unique_ptr<AST::ExprStmt> stmt (
	new AST::ExprStmt (std::move (expr), t->get_locus (), false));
      return ExprOrStmt (std::move (stmt));
    }

  // return expression
  return ExprOrStmt (std::move (expr));
}

// Parses a struct expression field.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprField>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_expr_field ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      if (lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == COLON)
	{
	  // struct expr field with identifier and expr
	  Identifier ident = {t};
	  lexer.skip_token (1);

	  // parse expression (required)
	  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
	  if (expr == nullptr)
	    {
	      Error error (t->get_locus (),
			   "failed to parse struct expression field with "
			   "identifier and expression");
	      add_error (std::move (error));

	      return nullptr;
	    }

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprFieldIdentifierValue> (
	    new AST::StructExprFieldIdentifierValue (std::move (ident),
						     std::move (expr),
						     t->get_locus ()));
	}
      else
	{
	  // struct expr field with identifier only
	  Identifier ident{t};
	  lexer.skip_token ();

	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprFieldIdentifier> (
	    new AST::StructExprFieldIdentifier (std::move (ident),
						t->get_locus ()));
	}
      case INT_LITERAL: {
	// parse tuple index field
	int index = atoi (t->get_str ().c_str ());
	lexer.skip_token ();

	if (!skip_token (COLON))
	  {
	    // skip somewhere?
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// parse field expression (required)
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
	if (expr == nullptr)
	  {
	    Error error (t->get_locus (),
			 "failed to parse expr in struct (or enum) expr "
			 "field with tuple index");
	    add_error (std::move (error));

	    return nullptr;
	  }

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprFieldIndexValue> (
	  new AST::StructExprFieldIndexValue (index, std::move (expr),
					      t->get_locus ()));
      }
    case DOT_DOT:
      /* this is a struct base and can't be parsed here, so just return
       * nothing without erroring */

      return nullptr;
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unrecognised token %qs as first token of struct expr field - "
	       "expected identifier or integer literal",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

// "Unexpected token" panic mode - flags gcc error at unexpected token
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::unexpected_token (const_TokenPtr t)
{
  Error error (t->get_locus (), "unexpected token %qs\n",
	       t->get_token_description ());
  add_error (std::move (error));
}

/* Crappy "error recovery" performed after error by skipping tokens until a
 * semi-colon is found */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_after_semicolon ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  while (t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE && t->get_id () != SEMICOLON)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (t->get_id () == SEMICOLON)
    lexer.skip_token ();
}

/* Skips the current token */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_token ()
{
  lexer.skip_token ();
}

/* Checks if current token has inputted id - skips it and returns true if so,
 * diagnoses an error and returns false otherwise. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_token (TokenId token_id)
{
  return expect_token (token_id) != const_TokenPtr ();
}

/* Checks if current token is similar to inputted token - skips it and returns
 * true if so, diagnoses an error and returns false otherwise. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_token (const_TokenPtr token)
{
  return expect_token (token) != const_TokenPtr ();
}

/* Checks if current token has inputted id - skips it and returns true if so,
 * returns false otherwise without diagnosing an error */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::maybe_skip_token (TokenId token_id)
{
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != token_id)
    return false;
  else
    return skip_token (token_id);
}

/* Checks the current token - if id is same as expected, skips and returns it,
 * otherwise diagnoses error and returns null. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
const_TokenPtr
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::expect_token (TokenId token_id)
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == token_id)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return t;
    }
  else
    {
      Error error (t->get_locus (), "expecting %qs but %qs found",
		   get_token_description (token_id),
		   t->get_token_description ());
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return const_TokenPtr ();
    }
}

/* Checks the current token - if same as expected, skips and returns it,
 * otherwise diagnoses error and returns null. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
const_TokenPtr
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::expect_token (const_TokenPtr token_expect)
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (t->get_id () == token_expect->get_id ()
      && (!t->should_have_str () || t->get_str () == token_expect->get_str ()))
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      return t;
    }
  else
    {
      Error error (t->get_locus (), "expecting %qs but %qs found",
		   token_expect->get_token_description (),
		   t->get_token_description ());
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return const_TokenPtr ();
    }
}

// Skips all tokens until EOF or }. Don't use.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_after_end ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  while (t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE && t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (t->get_id () == RIGHT_CURLY)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
    }
}

/* A slightly more aware error-handler that skips all tokens until it reaches
 * the end of the block scope (i.e. when left curly brackets = right curly
 * brackets). Note: assumes currently in the middle of a block. Use
 * skip_after_next_block to skip based on the assumption that the block
 * has not been entered yet. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_after_end_block ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  int curly_count = 1;

  while (curly_count > 0 && t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE)
    {
      switch (t->get_id ())
	{
	case LEFT_CURLY:
	  curly_count++;
	  break;
	case RIGHT_CURLY:
	  curly_count--;
	  break;
	default:
	  break;
	}
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }
}

/* Skips tokens until the end of the next block. i.e. assumes that the block
 * has not been entered yet. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_after_next_block ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  // initial loop - skip until EOF if no left curlies encountered
  while (t->get_id () != END_OF_FILE && t->get_id () != LEFT_CURLY)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // if next token is left, skip it and then skip after the block ends
  if (t->get_id () == LEFT_CURLY)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      skip_after_end_block ();
    }
  // otherwise, do nothing as EOF
}

/* Skips all tokens until ] (the end of an attribute) - does not skip the ]
 * (as designed for attribute body use) */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
void
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::skip_after_end_attribute ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();

  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_SQUARE)
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // Don't skip the RIGHT_SQUARE token
}

/* Pratt parser impl of parse_expr. FIXME: this is only provisional and
 * probably will be changed. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_expr (int right_binding_power,
					AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  const_TokenPtr current_token = lexer.peek_token ();
  // Special hack because we are allowed to return nullptr, in that case we
  // don't want to skip the token, since we don't actually parse it. But if
  // null isn't allowed it indicates an error, and we want to skip past that.
  // So return early if it is one of the tokens that ends an expression
  // (or at least cannot start a new expression).
  if (restrictions.expr_can_be_null)
    {
      TokenId id = current_token->get_id ();
      if (id == SEMICOLON || id == RIGHT_PAREN || id == RIGHT_CURLY
	  || id == RIGHT_SQUARE || id == COMMA || id == LEFT_CURLY)
	return nullptr;
    }

  if (current_token->get_id () == LEFT_SHIFT)
    {
      lexer.split_current_token (LEFT_ANGLE, LEFT_ANGLE);
      current_token = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  lexer.skip_token ();

  ParseRestrictions null_denotation_restrictions = restrictions;
  null_denotation_restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt = false;

  // parse null denotation (unary part of expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr
    = null_denotation (current_token, {}, null_denotation_restrictions);

  return left_denotations (std::move (expr), right_binding_power,
			   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
}

template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::left_denotations (std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr,
					      int right_binding_power,
					      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					      ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  if (expr == nullptr)
    {
      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("null denotation is null; returning null for parse_expr");
      return nullptr;
    }

  const_TokenPtr current_token = lexer.peek_token ();

  if (restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt && !expr->is_expr_without_block ()
      && current_token->get_id () != DOT
      && current_token->get_id () != QUESTION_MARK)
    {
      rust_debug ("statement expression with block");
      expr->set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
      return expr;
    }

  restrictions.expr_can_be_stmt = false;

  // stop parsing if find lower priority token - parse higher priority first
  while (right_binding_power < left_binding_power (current_token))
    {
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // FIXME attributes should generally be applied to the null denotation.
      expr = left_denotation (current_token, std::move (expr),
			      std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);

      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  // DEBUG
	  rust_debug ("left denotation is null; returning null for parse_expr");

	  return nullptr;
	}

      current_token = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  return expr;
}

// Parse expression with lowest left binding power.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_expr (AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  return parse_expr (LBP_LOWEST, std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
}

/* Determines action to take when finding token at beginning of expression. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::null_denotation (const_TokenPtr tok,
					     AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					     ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  /* note: tok is previous character in input stream, not current one, as
   * parse_expr skips it before passing it in */

  /* as a Pratt parser (which works by decomposing expressions into a null
   * denotation and then a left denotation), null denotations handle primaries
   * and unary operands (but only prefix unary operands) */

  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
    case SELF:
    case SELF_ALIAS:
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
    case CRATE:
      case SUPER: {
	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("beginning null denotation identifier handling");

	/* best option: parse as path, then extract identifier, macro,
	 * struct/enum, or just path info from it */
	AST::PathInExpression path = parse_path_in_expression_pratt (tok);

	return null_denotation_path (std::move (path), std::move (outer_attrs),
				     restrictions);
      }
      case SCOPE_RESOLUTION: {
	// TODO: fix: this is for global paths, i.e. std::string::whatever
	Error error (tok->get_locus (),
		     "found null denotation scope resolution operator, and "
		     "have not written handling for it");
	add_error (std::move (error));

	return nullptr;
      }
    default:
      return null_denotation_not_path (std::move (tok), std::move (outer_attrs),
				       restrictions);
    }
}

// Handling of expresions that start with a path for `null_denotation`.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::null_denotation_path (
  AST::PathInExpression path, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
  ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  rust_debug ("parsing null denotation after path");

  // HACK: always make "self" by itself a path (regardless of next
  // tokens)
  if (path.is_single_segment () && path.get_segments ()[0].is_lower_self_seg ())
    {
      // HACK: add outer attrs to path
      path.set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
    }

  // branch on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case EXCLAM:
      // macro
      return parse_macro_invocation_partial (std::move (path),
					     std::move (outer_attrs));
      case LEFT_CURLY: {
	bool not_a_block = lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
			   && (lexer.peek_token (2)->get_id () == COMMA
			       || (lexer.peek_token (2)->get_id () == COLON
				   && (lexer.peek_token (4)->get_id () == COMMA
				       || !can_tok_start_type (
					 lexer.peek_token (3)->get_id ()))));

	/* definitely not a block:
	 *  path '{' ident ','
	 *  path '{' ident ':' [anything] ','
	 *  path '{' ident ':' [not a type]
	 * otherwise, assume block expr and thus path */
	// DEBUG
	rust_debug ("values of lookahead: '%s' '%s' '%s' '%s' ",
		    lexer.peek_token (1)->get_token_description (),
		    lexer.peek_token (2)->get_token_description (),
		    lexer.peek_token (3)->get_token_description (),
		    lexer.peek_token (4)->get_token_description ());

	rust_debug ("can be struct expr: '%s', not a block: '%s'",
		    restrictions.can_be_struct_expr ? "true" : "false",
		    not_a_block ? "true" : "false");

	// struct/enum expr struct
	if (!restrictions.can_be_struct_expr && !not_a_block)
	  {
	    // HACK: add outer attrs to path
	    path.set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
	    return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	      new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
	  }
	return parse_struct_expr_struct_partial (std::move (path),
						 std::move (outer_attrs));
      }
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      // struct/enum expr tuple
      if (!restrictions.can_be_struct_expr)
	{
	  // assume path is returned
	  // HACK: add outer attributes to path
	  path.set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	    new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
	}
      return parse_struct_expr_tuple_partial (std::move (path),
					      std::move (outer_attrs));
    default:
      // assume path is returned if not single segment
      if (path.is_single_segment ())
	{
	  // FIXME: This should probably be returned as a path.
	  /* HACK: may have to become permanent, but this is my current
	   * identifier expression */
	  return std::unique_ptr<AST::IdentifierExpr> (new AST::IdentifierExpr (
	    path.get_segments ()[0].get_ident_segment ().as_string (), {},
	    path.get_locus ()));
	}
      // HACK: add outer attrs to path
      path.set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
	new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));
    }
  rust_unreachable ();
}

// Handling of expresions that do not start with a path for `null_denotation`.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::null_denotation_not_path (
  const_TokenPtr tok, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    // FIXME: Handle in null_denotation_path?
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      case LEFT_ANGLE: {
	// qualified path
	// HACK: add outer attrs to path
	AST::QualifiedPathInExpression path
	  = parse_qualified_path_in_expression (tok->get_locus ());
	path.set_outer_attrs (std::move (outer_attrs));
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::QualifiedPathInExpression> (
	  new AST::QualifiedPathInExpression (std::move (path)));
      }
    // FIXME: delegate to parse_literal_expr instead? would have to rejig
    // tokens and whatever.
    // FIXME: for literal exprs, outer attrs should be passed in, and later
    // error if it does not make up the entire statement.
    case INT_LITERAL:
      // we should check the range, but ignore for now
      // encode as int?
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::INT,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      // encode as float?
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::FLOAT,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case STRING_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::STRING,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case BYTE_STRING_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::BYTE_STRING,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case CHAR_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::CHAR,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case BYTE_CHAR_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (tok->get_str (), AST::Literal::BYTE,
			      tok->get_type_hint (), {}, tok->get_locus ()));
    case TRUE_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (Values::Keywords::TRUE_LITERAL,
			      AST::Literal::BOOL, tok->get_type_hint (), {},
			      tok->get_locus ()));
    case FALSE_LITERAL:
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::LiteralExpr> (
	new AST::LiteralExpr (Values::Keywords::FALSE_LITERAL,
			      AST::Literal::BOOL, tok->get_type_hint (), {},
			      tok->get_locus ()));
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      return parse_grouped_or_tuple_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
					  tok->get_locus ());

      /*case PLUS: { // unary plus operator
	  // invoke parse_expr recursively with appropriate priority, etc. for
      below AST::Expr* expr = parse_expr(LBP_UNARY_PLUS);

	  if (expr == nullptr)
	      return nullptr;
	  // can only apply to integer and float expressions
	  if (expr->get_type() != integer_type_node || expr->get_type() !=
      float_type_node) { rust_error_at(tok->get_locus(), "operand of unary
      plus must be int or float but it is %s", print_type(expr->get_type()));
      return nullptr;
	  }

	  return Tree(expr, tok->get_locus());
      }*/
      // Rust has no unary plus operator
      case MINUS: { // unary minus
	ParseRestrictions entered_from_unary;
	entered_from_unary.entered_from_unary = true;
	if (!restrictions.can_be_struct_expr)
	  entered_from_unary.can_be_struct_expr = false;
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr
	  = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_MINUS, {}, entered_from_unary);

	if (expr == nullptr)
	  return nullptr;
	// can only apply to integer and float expressions
	/*if (expr.get_type() != integer_type_node || expr.get_type() !=
	float_type_node) { rust_error_at(tok->get_locus(), "operand of unary
	minus must be int or float but it is %s",
	print_type(expr.get_type())); return Tree::error();
	}*/
	/* FIXME: when implemented the "get type" method on expr, ensure it is
	 * int or float type (except unsigned int). Actually, this would
	 * probably have to be done in semantic analysis (as type checking).
	 */

	/* FIXME: allow outer attributes on these expressions by having an
	 * outer attrs parameter in function*/
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::NegationExpr> (
	  new AST::NegationExpr (std::move (expr), NegationOperator::NEGATE,
				 std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case EXCLAM: { // logical or bitwise not
	ParseRestrictions entered_from_unary;
	entered_from_unary.entered_from_unary = true;
	if (!restrictions.can_be_struct_expr)
	  entered_from_unary.can_be_struct_expr = false;
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr
	  = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_EXCLAM, {}, entered_from_unary);

	if (expr == nullptr)
	  return nullptr;
	// can only apply to boolean expressions
	/*if (expr.get_type() != boolean_type_node) {
	    rust_error_at(tok->get_locus(),
	      "operand of logical not must be a boolean but it is %s",
	      print_type(expr.get_type()));
	    return Tree::error();
	}*/
	/* FIXME: type checking for boolean or integer expressions in semantic
	 * analysis */

	// FIXME: allow outer attributes on these expressions
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::NegationExpr> (
	  new AST::NegationExpr (std::move (expr), NegationOperator::NOT,
				 std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case ASTERISK: {
	/* pointer dereference only - HACK: as struct expressions should
	 * always be value expressions, cannot be dereferenced */
	ParseRestrictions entered_from_unary;
	entered_from_unary.entered_from_unary = true;
	entered_from_unary.can_be_struct_expr = false;
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr
	  = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_ASTERISK, {}, entered_from_unary);
	// FIXME: allow outer attributes on expression
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::DereferenceExpr> (
	  new AST::DereferenceExpr (std::move (expr), std::move (outer_attrs),
				    tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case AMP: {
	// (single) "borrow" expression - shared (mutable) or immutable
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;
	bool is_mut_borrow = false;

	ParseRestrictions entered_from_unary;
	entered_from_unary.entered_from_unary = true;
	if (!restrictions.can_be_struct_expr)
	  entered_from_unary.can_be_struct_expr = false;

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    expr = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_AMP_MUT, {}, entered_from_unary);
	    is_mut_borrow = true;
	  }
	else
	  {
	    expr = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_AMP, {}, entered_from_unary);
	  }

	// FIXME: allow outer attributes on expression
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::BorrowExpr> (
	  new AST::BorrowExpr (std::move (expr), is_mut_borrow, false,
			       std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
      }
      case LOGICAL_AND: {
	// (double) "borrow" expression - shared (mutable) or immutable
	std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = nullptr;
	bool is_mut_borrow = false;

	ParseRestrictions entered_from_unary;
	entered_from_unary.entered_from_unary = true;

	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == MUT)
	  {
	    lexer.skip_token ();
	    expr = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_AMP_MUT, {}, entered_from_unary);
	    is_mut_borrow = true;
	  }
	else
	  {
	    expr = parse_expr (LBP_UNARY_AMP, {}, entered_from_unary);
	  }

	// FIXME: allow outer attributes on expression
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::BorrowExpr> (
	  new AST::BorrowExpr (std::move (expr), is_mut_borrow, true,
			       std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ()));
      }
    case OR:
    case PIPE:
    case MOVE:
      // closure expression
      return parse_closure_expr_pratt (tok, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case DOT_DOT:
      // either "range to" or "range full" expressions
      return parse_nud_range_exclusive_expr (tok, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case DOT_DOT_EQ:
      // range to inclusive expr
      return parse_range_to_inclusive_expr (tok, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case RETURN_KW:
      // FIXME: is this really a null denotation expression?
      return parse_return_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
    case BREAK:
      // FIXME: is this really a null denotation expression?
      return parse_break_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
    case CONTINUE:
      return parse_continue_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
    case LEFT_CURLY:
      // ok - this is an expression with block for once.
      return parse_block_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
			       AST::LoopLabel::error (), tok->get_locus ());
    case IF:
      // if or if let, so more lookahead to find out
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LET)
	{
	  // if let expr
	  return parse_if_let_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
	}
      else
	{
	  // if expr
	  return parse_if_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
	}
    case LIFETIME:
      return parse_labelled_loop_expr (tok, std::move (outer_attrs));
    case LOOP:
      return parse_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), AST::LoopLabel::error (),
			      tok->get_locus ());
    case WHILE:
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == LET)
	{
	  return parse_while_let_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs));
	}
      else
	{
	  return parse_while_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
					AST::LoopLabel::error (),
					tok->get_locus ());
	}
    case FOR:
      return parse_for_loop_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
				  AST::LoopLabel::error ());
    case MATCH_KW:
      // also an expression with block
      return parse_match_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      // array definition expr (not indexing)
      return parse_array_expr (std::move (outer_attrs), tok->get_locus ());
    case UNSAFE:
      return parse_unsafe_block_expr (std::move (outer_attrs),
				      tok->get_locus ());
    case UNDERSCORE:
      add_error (
	Error (tok->get_locus (),
	       "use of %qs is not allowed on the right-side of an assignment",
	       tok->get_token_description ()));
      return nullptr;
    default:
      if (!restrictions.expr_can_be_null)
	add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
			  "found unexpected token %qs in null denotation",
			  tok->get_token_description ()));
      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Called for each token that can appear in infix (between) position. Can be
 * operators or other punctuation. Returns a function pointer to member
 * function that implements the left denotation for the token given. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::left_denotation (const_TokenPtr tok,
					     std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
					     AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
					     ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // Token passed in has already been skipped, so peek gives "next" token
  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
      // FIXME: allow for outer attributes to be applied
      case QUESTION_MARK: {
	location_t left_locus = left->get_locus ();
	// error propagation expression - unary postfix
	return std::unique_ptr<AST::ErrorPropagationExpr> (
	  new AST::ErrorPropagationExpr (std::move (left),
					 std::move (outer_attrs), left_locus));
      }
    case PLUS:
      // sum expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_binary_plus_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					       std::move (outer_attrs),
					       ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::ADD,
					       restrictions);
    case MINUS:
      // difference expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_binary_minus_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				      std::move (outer_attrs),
	 restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::SUBTRACT, restrictions);
    case ASTERISK:
      // product expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_binary_mult_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MULTIPLY, restrictions);
    case DIV:
      // quotient expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_binary_div_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::DIVIDE, restrictions);
    case PERCENT:
      // modulo expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_binary_mod_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MODULUS, restrictions);
    case AMP:
      // logical or bitwise and expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_bitwise_and_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_AND, restrictions);
    case PIPE:
      // logical or bitwise or expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_bitwise_or_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_OR, restrictions);
    case CARET:
      // logical or bitwise xor expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_bitwise_xor_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_XOR, restrictions);
    case LEFT_SHIFT:
      // left shift expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_left_shift_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::LEFT_SHIFT, restrictions);
    case RIGHT_SHIFT:
      // right shift expression - binary infix
      /*return parse_right_shift_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT, restrictions);
    case EQUAL_EQUAL:
      // equal to expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_equal_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				      std::move (outer_attrs),
	 restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::EQUAL, restrictions);
    case NOT_EQUAL:
      // not equal to expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_not_equal_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					  std::move (outer_attrs),
					  restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::NOT_EQUAL,
				    restrictions);
    case RIGHT_ANGLE:
      // greater than expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_greater_than_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					     std::move (outer_attrs),
					     restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::GREATER_THAN,
				    restrictions);
    case LEFT_ANGLE:
      // less than expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_less_than_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					  std::move (outer_attrs),
					  restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::LESS_THAN,
				    restrictions);
    case GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
      // greater than or equal to expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_greater_equal_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					      std::move (outer_attrs),
					      restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::GREATER_OR_EQUAL,
				    restrictions);
    case LESS_OR_EQUAL:
      // less than or equal to expression - binary infix (no associativity)
      /*return parse_binary_less_equal_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);*/
      return parse_comparison_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs),
				    ComparisonOperator::LESS_OR_EQUAL,
				    restrictions);
    case OR:
      // lazy logical or expression - binary infix
      return parse_lazy_or_expr (tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
				 restrictions);
    case LOGICAL_AND:
      // lazy logical and expression - binary infix
      return parse_lazy_and_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				  std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
    case AS:
      /* type cast expression - kind of binary infix (RHS is actually a
       * TypeNoBounds) */
      return parse_type_cast_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
    case EQUAL:
      // assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
      // associativity)
      return parse_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
			       restrictions);
    case PLUS_EQ:
      /* plus-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_plus_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					     std::move (outer_attrs),
					     CompoundAssignmentOperator::ADD,
					     restrictions);
    case MINUS_EQ:
      /* minus-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_minus_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::SUBTRACT, restrictions);
    case ASTERISK_EQ:
      /* multiply-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_mult_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				    std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::MULTIPLY, restrictions);
    case DIV_EQ:
      /* division-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_div_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					     std::move (outer_attrs),
					     CompoundAssignmentOperator::DIVIDE,
					     restrictions);
    case PERCENT_EQ:
      /* modulo-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_mod_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::MODULUS, restrictions);
    case AMP_EQ:
      /* bitwise and-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_and_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_AND, restrictions);
    case PIPE_EQ:
      /* bitwise or-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_or_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				  std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_OR, restrictions);
    case CARET_EQ:
      /* bitwise xor-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_xor_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_XOR, restrictions);
    case LEFT_SHIFT_EQ:
      /* left shift-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_left_shift_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					  std::move (outer_attrs),
					  restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::LEFT_SHIFT, restrictions);
    case RIGHT_SHIFT_EQ:
      /* right shift-assignment expression - binary infix (note right-to-left
       * associativity) */
      /*return parse_right_shift_assig_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);*/
      return parse_compound_assignment_expr (
	tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
	CompoundAssignmentOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT, restrictions);
    case DOT_DOT:
      /* range exclusive expression - binary infix (no associativity)
       * either "range" or "range from" */
      return parse_led_range_exclusive_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					     std::move (outer_attrs),
					     restrictions);
    case DOT_DOT_EQ:
      /* range inclusive expression - binary infix (no associativity)
       * unambiguously RangeInclusiveExpr */
      return parse_range_inclusive_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					 std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
    case SCOPE_RESOLUTION:
      // path expression - binary infix? FIXME should this even be parsed
      // here?
      add_error (
	Error (tok->get_locus (),
	       "found scope resolution operator in left denotation "
	       "function - this should probably be handled elsewhere"));

      return nullptr;
      case DOT: {
	/* field expression or method call - relies on parentheses after next
	 * identifier or await if token after is "await" (unary postfix) or
	 * tuple index if token after is a decimal int literal */

	const_TokenPtr next_tok = lexer.peek_token ();
	if (next_tok->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
	    && next_tok->get_str () == Values::Keywords::AWAIT)
	  {
	    // await expression
	    return parse_await_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				     std::move (outer_attrs));
	  }
	else if (next_tok->get_id () == INT_LITERAL)
	  {
	    // tuple index expression - TODO check for decimal int literal
	    return parse_tuple_index_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);
	  }
	else if (next_tok->get_id () == FLOAT_LITERAL)
	  {
	    // Lexer has misidentified a tuple index as a float literal
	    // eg: `(x, (y, z)).1.0` -> 1.0 has been identified as a float
	    // literal. This means we should split it into three new separate
	    // tokens, the first tuple index, the dot and the second tuple
	    // index.
	    auto current_loc = next_tok->get_locus ();
	    auto str = next_tok->get_str ();
	    auto dot_pos = str.find (".");
	    auto prefix = str.substr (0, dot_pos);
	    auto suffix = str.substr (dot_pos + 1);
	    if (dot_pos == str.size () - 1)
	      lexer.split_current_token (
		{Token::make_int (current_loc, std::move (prefix),
				  CORETYPE_PURE_DECIMAL),
		 Token::make (DOT, current_loc + 1)});
	    else
	      lexer.split_current_token (
		{Token::make_int (current_loc, std::move (prefix),
				  CORETYPE_PURE_DECIMAL),
		 Token::make (DOT, current_loc + 1),
		 Token::make_int (current_loc + 2, std::move (suffix),
				  CORETYPE_PURE_DECIMAL)});
	    return parse_tuple_index_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);
	  }
	else if (next_tok->get_id () == IDENTIFIER
		 && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () != LEFT_PAREN
		 && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () != SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
	  {
	    /* field expression (or should be) - FIXME: scope resolution right
	     * after identifier should always be method, I'm pretty sure */
	    return parse_field_access_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					    std::move (outer_attrs),
					    restrictions);
	  }
	else
	  {
	    // method call (probably)
	    return parse_method_call_expr (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);
	  }
      }
    case LEFT_PAREN:
      // function call - method call is based on dot notation first
      return parse_function_call_expr (tok, std::move (left),
				       std::move (outer_attrs), restrictions);
    case LEFT_SQUARE:
      // array or slice index expression (pseudo binary infix)
      return parse_index_expr (tok, std::move (left), std::move (outer_attrs),
			       restrictions);
    case FLOAT_LITERAL:
      /* HACK: get around lexer mis-identifying '.0' or '.1' or whatever as a
       * float literal - TODO does this happen anymore? It shouldn't. */
      return parse_tuple_index_expr_float (tok, std::move (left),
					   std::move (outer_attrs),
					   restrictions);
    default:
      add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
			"found unexpected token %qs in left denotation",
			tok->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Returns the left binding power for the given ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr type.
 * TODO make constexpr? Would that even do anything useful? */
inline binding_powers
get_lbp_for_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
  AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr::ExprType expr_type)
{
  switch (expr_type)
    {
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::ADD:
      return LBP_PLUS;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::SUBTRACT:
      return LBP_MINUS;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MULTIPLY:
      return LBP_MUL;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::DIVIDE:
      return LBP_DIV;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MODULUS:
      return LBP_MOD;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_AND:
      return LBP_AMP;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_OR:
      return LBP_PIPE;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_XOR:
      return LBP_CARET;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::LEFT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_L_SHIFT;
    case ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_R_SHIFT;
    default:
      // WTF? should not happen, this is an error
      rust_unreachable ();

      return LBP_PLUS;
    }
}

// Parses an arithmetic or logical expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (
  const_TokenPtr, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left, AST::AttrVec,
  AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr::ExprType expr_type,
  ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (get_lbp_for_arithmetic_or_logical_expr (expr_type),
		  AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      expr_type, locus));
}

// Parses a binary addition expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_plus_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_PLUS, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::ADD, locus));
}

// Parses a binary subtraction expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_minus_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MINUS, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::SUBTRACT,
				      locus));
}

// Parses a binary multiplication expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_mult_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MUL, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MULTIPLY,
				      locus));
}

// Parses a binary division expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_div_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_DIV, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::DIVIDE,
				      locus));
}

// Parses a binary modulo expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_mod_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MOD, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::MODULUS,
				      locus));
}

/* Parses a binary bitwise (or eager logical) and expression (with Pratt
 * parsing). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_bitwise_and_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_AMP, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_AND,
				      locus));
}

/* Parses a binary bitwise (or eager logical) or expression (with Pratt
 * parsing). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_bitwise_or_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_PIPE, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_OR,
				      locus));
}

/* Parses a binary bitwise (or eager logical) xor expression (with Pratt
 * parsing). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_bitwise_xor_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_CARET, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::BITWISE_XOR,
				      locus));
}

// Parses a binary left shift expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_left_shift_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_L_SHIFT, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::LEFT_SHIFT,
				      locus));
}

// Parses a binary right shift expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_right_shift_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_R_SHIFT, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr> (
    new AST::ArithmeticOrLogicalExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				      ArithmeticOrLogicalOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT,
				      locus));
}

/* Returns the left binding power for the given ComparisonExpr type.
 * TODO make constexpr? Would that even do anything useful? */
inline binding_powers
get_lbp_for_comparison_expr (AST::ComparisonExpr::ExprType expr_type)
{
  switch (expr_type)
    {
    case ComparisonOperator::EQUAL:
      return LBP_EQUAL;
    case ComparisonOperator::NOT_EQUAL:
      return LBP_NOT_EQUAL;
    case ComparisonOperator::GREATER_THAN:
      return LBP_GREATER_THAN;
    case ComparisonOperator::LESS_THAN:
      return LBP_SMALLER_THAN;
    case ComparisonOperator::GREATER_OR_EQUAL:
      return LBP_GREATER_EQUAL;
    case ComparisonOperator::LESS_OR_EQUAL:
      return LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL;
    default:
      // WTF? should not happen, this is an error
      rust_unreachable ();

      return LBP_EQUAL;
    }
}

/* Parses a ComparisonExpr of given type and LBP. TODO find a way to only
 * specify one and have the other looked up - e.g. specify ExprType and
 * binding power is looked up? */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_comparison_expr (
  const_TokenPtr, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left, AST::AttrVec,
  AST::ComparisonExpr::ExprType expr_type, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (get_lbp_for_comparison_expr (expr_type), AST::AttrVec (),
		  restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right), expr_type,
			     locus));
}

// Parses a binary equal to expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_equal_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_EQUAL, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::EQUAL, locus));
}

// Parses a binary not equal to expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_not_equal_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_NOT_EQUAL, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::NOT_EQUAL, locus));
}

// Parses a binary greater than expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_greater_than_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_GREATER_THAN, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::GREATER_THAN, locus));
}

// Parses a binary less than expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_less_than_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_SMALLER_THAN, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::LESS_THAN, locus));
}

// Parses a binary greater than or equal to expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_greater_equal_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_GREATER_EQUAL, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::GREATER_OR_EQUAL, locus));
}

// Parses a binary less than or equal to expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_binary_less_equal_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_SMALLER_EQUAL, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ComparisonExpr> (
    new AST::ComparisonExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     ComparisonOperator::LESS_OR_EQUAL, locus));
}

// Parses a binary lazy boolean or expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lazy_or_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_LOGICAL_OR, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr> (
    new AST::LazyBooleanExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			      LazyBooleanOperator::LOGICAL_OR, locus));
}

// Parses a binary lazy boolean and expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_lazy_and_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_LOGICAL_AND, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::LazyBooleanExpr> (
    new AST::LazyBooleanExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			      LazyBooleanOperator::LOGICAL_AND, locus));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix type cast expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeCastExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_type_cast_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr_to_cast,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED,
  ParseRestrictions restrictions ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
  if (type == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: how do I get precedence put in here?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = expr_to_cast->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeCastExpr> (
    new AST::TypeCastExpr (std::move (expr_to_cast), std::move (type), locus));
}

// Parses a binary assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::AssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::AssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

/* Returns the left binding power for the given CompoundAssignmentExpr type.
 * TODO make constexpr? Would that even do anything useful? */
inline binding_powers
get_lbp_for_compound_assignment_expr (
  AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr::ExprType expr_type)
{
  switch (expr_type)
    {
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::ADD:
      return LBP_PLUS;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::SUBTRACT:
      return LBP_MINUS;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::MULTIPLY:
      return LBP_MUL;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::DIVIDE:
      return LBP_DIV;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::MODULUS:
      return LBP_MOD;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_AND:
      return LBP_AMP;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_OR:
      return LBP_PIPE;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_XOR:
      return LBP_CARET;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::LEFT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_L_SHIFT;
    case CompoundAssignmentOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT:
      return LBP_R_SHIFT;
    default:
      // WTF? should not happen, this is an error
      rust_unreachable ();

      return LBP_PLUS;
    }
}

// Parses a compound assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_compound_assignment_expr (
  const_TokenPtr, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left, AST::AttrVec,
  AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr::ExprType expr_type,
  ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (get_lbp_for_compound_assignment_expr (expr_type) - 1,
		  AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     expr_type, locus));
}

// Parses a binary add-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_plus_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_PLUS_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::ADD, locus));
}

// Parses a binary minus-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_minus_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MINUS_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::SUBTRACT,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary multiplication-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_mult_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MULT_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::MULTIPLY,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary division-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_div_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_DIV_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::DIVIDE,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary modulo-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_mod_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_MOD_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::MODULUS,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary and-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_and_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_AMP_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_AND,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary or-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_or_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_PIPE_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_OR,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary xor-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_xor_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_CARET_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::BITWISE_XOR,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary left shift-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_left_shift_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_L_SHIFT_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::LEFT_SHIFT,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a binary right shift-assignment expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_right_shift_assig_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_R_SHIFT_ASSIG - 1, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: ensure right-associativity for this - 'LBP - 1' may do this?

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr> (
    new AST::CompoundAssignmentExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right),
				     CompoundAssignmentOperator::RIGHT_SHIFT,
				     locus));
}

// Parses a postfix unary await expression (with Pratt parsing).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::AwaitExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_await_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr_to_await,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  /* skip "await" identifier (as "." has already been consumed in
   * parse_expression) this assumes that the identifier was already identified
   * as await */
  if (!skip_token (IDENTIFIER))
    {
      Error error (tok->get_locus (), "failed to skip %<await%> in await expr "
				      "- this is probably a deep issue");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // TODO: check inside async block in semantic analysis
  location_t locus = expr_to_await->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::AwaitExpr> (
    new AST::AwaitExpr (std::move (expr_to_await), std::move (outer_attrs),
			locus));
}

/* Parses an exclusive range ('..') in left denotation position (i.e.
 * RangeFromExpr or RangeFromToExpr). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_led_range_exclusive_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // FIXME: this probably parses expressions accidently or whatever
  // try parsing RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  // Can be nullptr, in which case it is a RangeFromExpr, otherwise a
  // RangeFromToExpr.
  restrictions.expr_can_be_null = true;
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_DOT_DOT, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);

  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  if (right == nullptr)
    {
      // range from expr
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFromExpr> (
	new AST::RangeFromExpr (std::move (left), locus));
    }
  else
    {
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFromToExpr> (
	new AST::RangeFromToExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right), locus));
    }
  // FIXME: make non-associative
}

/* Parses an exclusive range ('..') in null denotation position (i.e.
 * RangeToExpr or RangeFullExpr). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_nud_range_exclusive_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  auto restrictions = ParseRestrictions ();
  restrictions.expr_can_be_null = true;

  // FIXME: this probably parses expressions accidently or whatever
  // try parsing RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_DOT_DOT, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);

  location_t locus = tok->get_locus ();

  if (right == nullptr)
    {
      // range from expr
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFullExpr> (
	new AST::RangeFullExpr (locus));
    }
  else
    {
      return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeToExpr> (
	new AST::RangeToExpr (std::move (right), locus));
    }
  // FIXME: make non-associative
}

// Parses a full binary range inclusive expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFromToInclExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_range_inclusive_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> left,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right
    = parse_expr (LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ, AST::AttrVec (), restrictions);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: make non-associative

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = left->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeFromToInclExpr> (
    new AST::RangeFromToInclExpr (std::move (left), std::move (right), locus));
}

// Parses an inclusive range-to prefix unary expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeToInclExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_range_to_inclusive_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> right = parse_expr (LBP_DOT_DOT_EQ);
  if (right == nullptr)
    return nullptr;
  // FIXME: make non-associative

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::RangeToInclExpr> (
    new AST::RangeToInclExpr (std::move (right), tok->get_locus ()));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix tuple index expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_index_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> tuple_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions restrictions ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  // parse int literal (as token already skipped)
  const_TokenPtr index_tok = expect_token (INT_LITERAL);
  if (index_tok == nullptr)
    {
      return nullptr;
    }
  std::string index = index_tok->get_str ();

  // convert to integer
  if (!index_tok->is_pure_decimal ())
    {
      Error error (index_tok->get_locus (),
		   "tuple index should be a pure decimal literal");
      add_error (std::move (error));
    }
  int index_int = atoi (index.c_str ());

  location_t locus = tuple_expr->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr> (
    new AST::TupleIndexExpr (std::move (tuple_expr), index_int,
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix array (or slice) index expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayIndexExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_index_expr (
  const_TokenPtr, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> array_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions)
{
  // parse RHS (as tok has already been consumed in parse_expression)
  /*std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> index_expr
    = parse_expr (LBP_ARRAY_REF, AST::AttrVec (),
    restrictions);*/
  // TODO: conceptually, should treat [] as brackets, so just parse all expr
  std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> index_expr = parse_expr ();
  if (index_expr == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  // skip ']' at end of array
  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_SQUARE))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = array_expr->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::ArrayIndexExpr> (
    new AST::ArrayIndexExpr (std::move (array_expr), std::move (index_expr),
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix struct field access expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::FieldAccessExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_field_access_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> struct_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions restrictions ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  /* get field name identifier (assume that this is a field access expr and
   * not await, for instance) */
  const_TokenPtr ident_tok = expect_token (IDENTIFIER);
  if (ident_tok == nullptr)
    return nullptr;

  Identifier ident{ident_tok};

  location_t locus = struct_expr->get_locus ();

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  return std::unique_ptr<AST::FieldAccessExpr> (
    new AST::FieldAccessExpr (std::move (struct_expr), std::move (ident),
			      std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix method call expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MethodCallExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_method_call_expr (
  const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> receiver_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions)
{
  // parse path expr segment
  AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
  if (segment.is_error ())
    {
      Error error (tok->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse path expr segment of method call expr");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  // skip left parentheses
  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse method params (if they exist)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> params;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> param = parse_expr ();
      if (param == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse method param in method call");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      params.push_back (std::move (param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // skip right paren
  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // TODO: check types. actually do so in semantic analysis pass.
  location_t locus = receiver_expr->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::MethodCallExpr> (
    new AST::MethodCallExpr (std::move (receiver_expr), std::move (segment),
			     std::move (params), std::move (outer_attrs),
			     locus));
}

// Parses a pseudo-binary infix function call expression.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_function_call_expr (
  const_TokenPtr, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> function_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions)
{
  // parse function params (if they exist)
  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> params;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> param = parse_expr ();
      if (param == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse function param in function call");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      params.push_back (std::move (param));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();
      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // skip ')' at end of param list
  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // TODO: check types. actually, do so during semantic analysis
  location_t locus = function_expr->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr> (
    new AST::CallExpr (std::move (function_expr), std::move (params),
		       std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

/* Parses a macro invocation with a path in expression already parsed (but not
 * '!' token). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::MacroInvocation>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_macro_invocation_partial (
  AST::PathInExpression path, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs,
  ParseRestrictions restrictions)
{
  // macro invocation
  if (!skip_token (EXCLAM))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // convert PathInExpression to SimplePath - if this isn't possible, error
  AST::SimplePath converted_path = path.as_simple_path ();
  if (converted_path.is_empty ())
    {
      Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		   "failed to parse simple path in macro invocation");
      add_error (std::move (error));

      return nullptr;
    }

  AST::DelimTokenTree tok_tree = parse_delim_token_tree ();

  rust_debug ("successfully parsed macro invocation (via partial)");

  location_t macro_locus = converted_path.get_locus ();

  return AST::MacroInvocation::Regular (
    AST::MacroInvocData (std::move (converted_path), std::move (tok_tree)),
    std::move (outer_attrs), macro_locus);
}

/* Parses a struct expr struct with a path in expression already parsed (but
 * not
 * '{' token). */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprStruct>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_expr_struct_partial (
  AST::PathInExpression path, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // assume struct expr struct (as struct-enum disambiguation requires name
  // lookup) again, make statement if final ';'
  if (!skip_token (LEFT_CURLY))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  // parse inner attributes
  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  // branch based on next token
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  location_t path_locus = path.get_locus ();
  switch (t->get_id ())
    {
    case RIGHT_CURLY:
      // struct with no body
      lexer.skip_token ();

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprStruct> (
	new AST::StructExprStruct (std::move (path), std::move (inner_attrs),
				   std::move (outer_attrs), path_locus));
    case DOT_DOT:
      /* technically this would give a struct base-only struct, but this
       * algorithm should work too. As such, AST type not happening. */
    case IDENTIFIER:
      case INT_LITERAL: {
	// struct with struct expr fields

	// parse struct expr fields
	std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprField>> fields;

	while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_CURLY && t->get_id () != DOT_DOT)
	  {
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprField> field
	      = parse_struct_expr_field ();
	    if (field == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (t->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse struct (or enum) expr field");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }

	    // DEBUG:
	    rust_debug ("struct/enum expr field validated to not be null");

	    fields.push_back (std::move (field));

	    // DEBUG:
	    rust_debug ("struct/enum expr field pushed back");

	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	      {
		// DEBUG:
		rust_debug ("lack of comma detected in struct/enum expr "
			    "fields - break");
		break;
	      }
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // DEBUG:
	    rust_debug ("struct/enum expr fields comma skipped ");

	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	// DEBUG:
	rust_debug ("struct/enum expr about to parse struct base ");

	// parse struct base if it exists
	AST::StructBase struct_base = AST::StructBase::error ();
	if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == DOT_DOT)
	  {
	    location_t dot_dot_location = lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus ();
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    // parse required struct base expr
	    std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> base_expr = parse_expr ();
	    if (base_expr == nullptr)
	      {
		Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
			     "failed to parse struct base expression in struct "
			     "expression");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }

	    // DEBUG:
	    rust_debug ("struct/enum expr - parsed and validated base expr");

	    struct_base
	      = AST::StructBase (std::move (base_expr), dot_dot_location);

	    // DEBUG:
	    rust_debug ("assigned struct base to new struct base ");
	  }

	if (!skip_token (RIGHT_CURLY))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }

	// DEBUG:
	rust_debug (
	  "struct/enum expr skipped right curly - done and ready to return");

	return std::unique_ptr<AST::StructExprStructFields> (
	  new AST::StructExprStructFields (std::move (path), std::move (fields),
					   path_locus, std::move (struct_base),
					   std::move (inner_attrs),
					   std::move (outer_attrs)));
      }
    default:
      add_error (
	Error (t->get_locus (),
	       "unrecognised token %qs in struct (or enum) expression - "
	       "expected %<}%>, identifier, integer literal, or %<..%>",
	       t->get_token_description ()));

      return nullptr;
    }
}

/* Parses a struct expr tuple with a path in expression already parsed (but
 * not
 * '(' token).
 * FIXME: this currently outputs a call expr, as they cannot be disambiguated.
 * A better solution would be to just get this to call that function directly.
 * */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_struct_expr_tuple_partial (
  AST::PathInExpression path, AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  if (!skip_token (LEFT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  AST::AttrVec inner_attrs = parse_inner_attributes ();

  std::vector<std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr>> exprs;

  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () != RIGHT_PAREN)
    {
      // parse expression (required)
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (t->get_locus (), "failed to parse expression in "
					"struct (or enum) expression tuple");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return nullptr;
	}
      exprs.push_back (std::move (expr));

      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	break;

      lexer.skip_token ();

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  if (!skip_token (RIGHT_PAREN))
    {
      return nullptr;
    }

  location_t path_locus = path.get_locus ();

  auto pathExpr = std::unique_ptr<AST::PathInExpression> (
    new AST::PathInExpression (std::move (path)));

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::CallExpr> (
    new AST::CallExpr (std::move (pathExpr), std::move (exprs),
		       std::move (outer_attrs), path_locus));
}

/* Parses a path in expression with the first token passed as a parameter (as
 * it is skipped in token stream). Note that this only parses segment-first
 * paths, not global ones. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
AST::PathInExpression
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_path_in_expression_pratt (const_TokenPtr tok)
{
  // HACK-y way of making up for pratt-parsing consuming first token

  // DEBUG
  rust_debug ("current peek token when starting path pratt parse: '%s'",
	      lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description ());

  // create segment vector
  std::vector<AST::PathExprSegment> segments;

  std::string initial_str;

  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    case IDENTIFIER:
      initial_str = tok->get_str ();
      break;
    case SUPER:
      initial_str = Values::Keywords::SUPER;
      break;
    case SELF:
      initial_str = Values::Keywords::SELF;
      break;
    case SELF_ALIAS:
      initial_str = Values::Keywords::SELF_ALIAS;
      break;
    case CRATE:
      initial_str = Values::Keywords::CRATE;
      break;
    case DOLLAR_SIGN:
      if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == CRATE)
	{
	  initial_str = "$crate";
	  break;
	}
      gcc_fallthrough ();
    default:
      add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
			"unrecognised token %qs in path in expression",
			tok->get_token_description ()));

      return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
    }

  // parse required initial segment
  AST::PathExprSegment initial_segment (initial_str, tok->get_locus ());
  // parse generic args (and turbofish), if they exist
  /* use lookahead to determine if they actually exist (don't want to
   * accidently parse over next ident segment) */
  if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION
      && lexer.peek_token (1)->get_id () == LEFT_ANGLE)
    {
      // skip scope resolution
      lexer.skip_token ();

      AST::GenericArgs generic_args = parse_path_generic_args ();

      initial_segment
	= AST::PathExprSegment (AST::PathIdentSegment (initial_str,
						       tok->get_locus ()),
				tok->get_locus (), std::move (generic_args));
    }
  if (initial_segment.is_error ())
    {
      // skip after somewhere?
      // don't necessarily throw error but yeah

      // DEBUG
      rust_debug ("initial segment is error - returning null");

      return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
    }
  segments.push_back (std::move (initial_segment));

  // parse optional segments (as long as scope resolution operator exists)
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  while (t->get_id () == SCOPE_RESOLUTION)
    {
      // skip scope resolution operator
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse the actual segment - it is an error if it doesn't exist now
      AST::PathExprSegment segment = parse_path_expr_segment ();
      if (segment.is_error ())
	{
	  // skip after somewhere?
	  Error error (t->get_locus (),
		       "could not parse path expression segment");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  return AST::PathInExpression::create_error ();
	}

      segments.push_back (std::move (segment));

      t = lexer.peek_token ();
    }

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug (
    "current token (just about to return path to null denotation): '%s'",
    lexer.peek_token ()->get_token_description ());

  return AST::PathInExpression (std::move (segments), {}, tok->get_locus (),
				false);
}

// Parses a closure expression with pratt parsing (from null denotation).
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_closure_expr_pratt (const_TokenPtr tok,
						      AST::AttrVec outer_attrs)
{
  // TODO: does this need pratt parsing (for precedence)? probably not, but
  // idk
  location_t locus = tok->get_locus ();
  bool has_move = false;
  if (tok->get_id () == MOVE)
    {
      has_move = true;
      tok = lexer.peek_token ();
      lexer.skip_token ();
      // skip token and reassign
    }

  // handle parameter list
  std::vector<AST::ClosureParam> params;

  switch (tok->get_id ())
    {
    case OR:
      // no parameters, don't skip token
      break;
      case PIPE: {
	// actually may have parameters
	// don't skip token
	const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
	while (t->get_id () != PIPE)
	  {
	    AST::ClosureParam param = parse_closure_param ();
	    if (param.is_error ())
	      {
		// TODO is this really an error?
		Error error (t->get_locus (), "could not parse closure param");
		add_error (std::move (error));

		return nullptr;
	      }
	    params.push_back (std::move (param));

	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () != COMMA)
	      {
		if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OR)
		  lexer.split_current_token (PIPE, PIPE);
		// not an error but means param list is done
		break;
	      }
	    // skip comma
	    lexer.skip_token ();

	    if (lexer.peek_token ()->get_id () == OR)
	      lexer.split_current_token (PIPE, PIPE);

	    t = lexer.peek_token ();
	  }

	if (!skip_token (PIPE))
	  {
	    return nullptr;
	  }
	break;
      }
    default:
      add_error (Error (tok->get_locus (),
			"unexpected token %qs in closure expression - expected "
			"%<|%> or %<||%>",
			tok->get_token_description ()));

      // skip somewhere?
      return nullptr;
    }

  // again branch based on next token
  tok = lexer.peek_token ();
  if (tok->get_id () == RETURN_TYPE)
    {
      // must be return type closure with block expr

      // skip "return type" token
      lexer.skip_token ();

      // parse actual type, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::TypeNoBounds> type = parse_type_no_bounds ();
      if (type == nullptr)
	{
	  // error
	  Error error (tok->get_locus (), "failed to parse type for closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      // parse block expr, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::BlockExpr> block = parse_block_expr ();
      if (block == nullptr)
	{
	  // error
	  Error error (lexer.peek_token ()->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse block expr in closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExprInnerTyped> (
	new AST::ClosureExprInnerTyped (std::move (type), std::move (block),
					std::move (params), locus, has_move,
					std::move (outer_attrs)));
    }
  else
    {
      // must be expr-only closure

      // parse expr, which is required
      std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> expr = parse_expr ();
      if (expr == nullptr)
	{
	  Error error (tok->get_locus (),
		       "failed to parse expression in closure");
	  add_error (std::move (error));

	  // skip somewhere?
	  return nullptr;
	}

      return std::unique_ptr<AST::ClosureExprInner> (
	new AST::ClosureExprInner (std::move (expr), std::move (params), locus,
				   has_move, std::move (outer_attrs)));
    }
}

/* Parses a tuple index expression (pratt-parsed) from a 'float' token as a
 * result of lexer misidentification. */
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr>
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::parse_tuple_index_expr_float (
  const_TokenPtr tok, std::unique_ptr<AST::Expr> tuple_expr,
  AST::AttrVec outer_attrs, ParseRestrictions restrictions ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED)
{
  // only works on float literals
  if (tok->get_id () != FLOAT_LITERAL)
    return nullptr;

  // DEBUG:
  rust_debug ("exact string form of float: '%s'", tok->get_str ().c_str ());

  // get float string and remove dot and initial 0
  std::string index_str = tok->get_str ();
  index_str.erase (index_str.begin ());

  // get int from string
  int index = atoi (index_str.c_str ());

  location_t locus = tuple_expr->get_locus ();

  return std::unique_ptr<AST::TupleIndexExpr> (
    new AST::TupleIndexExpr (std::move (tuple_expr), index,
			     std::move (outer_attrs), locus));
}

// Returns true if the next token is END, ELSE, or EOF;
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::done_end_or_else ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  return (t->get_id () == RIGHT_CURLY || t->get_id () == ELSE
	  || t->get_id () == END_OF_FILE);
}

// Returns true if the next token is END or EOF.
template <typename ManagedTokenSource>
bool
Parser<ManagedTokenSource>::done_end ()
{
  const_TokenPtr t = lexer.peek_token ();
  return (t->get_id () == RIGHT_CURLY || t->get_id () == END_OF_FILE);
}
} // namespace Rust